Handbook of canning and aseptic packaging

Foreword Preface Acknowledgements 1. From Appertisation to Aseptic Packaging The Development of the science and technology of thermal processing - 1; Setback to Appert -3; Developments in processing -3; Improving the product quality - 4; The Birth of the NCA - 5; Innovations in containers - 6; Innovations in equipment - 9; Aseptic packaging - 10; Processed foods and public health - 11; Infectious and toxic agents - 13; Foods which encourage growth of bacteria - 13; Vectors of contamination - 13; Poisonous foods - 17; Fish and sea-food poisoning - 18; References - 18. 2. Microorganisms in Food Introduction - 21; Moulds - 22; Yeasts - 23; Bacteria - 25; Spores - 25; Transformation from spore to cell - 30; Growth of bacterial cell - 30; Nutrition - 30; Moisture and pH relationship - 32; Temperature requirements - 34; References - 35. 3. Microbial Spoilage of Canned Foods Introduction - 37; Types of microbial spoilage - 39; The pH classification of foods and principal spoilage organisms in canned products -42; Low-acid foods (pH >5.3) - 42; Low-acid foods (pH 4.6 - 5.3) - 44; Acid foods (pH 3.7 - 4.6) - 45; High-acid foods ( pH <3.7); Spore-forming aerobes - 46; Spore-forming anaerobes - 46; Clostridium botulinum - 46; Clostridia organisms other than C. botulinum - 50; References - 53. vii ix xi 1 21 37 xiv Contents 4. Spoilage Examination of Canned Foods 57 Introduction - 57; Laboratory examination - 57; External inspection - 59; Determination of net weight - 60; Overfilling - 60; Underfilling - 60; Incubation - 60; Cleaning, disinfection, and opening of containers - 61; Microbiological examination - 61; Reference sample - 62; Direct microscopic examination - 65; Measurement of pH - 66; Sensory examination - 70; Disposal of suspect container - 71; Seam teardown - 72; Guidelines for identification of spoilage - 73; Number of spoiled containers - 73; Age of product and storage - 73; Location of spoilage - 74; Cultural examination of spoilage - 74; Preparation of culture media - 76; General instructions -76; Format for identification of spoilage (Appendix 1) - 99; Particulars of microbial examination (Appendix 2) - 93; References - 94. 5. Identification of Spoilage Organisms in Canned Products --Genus Bacillus and Clostridium Identification of spoilage organisms of genus Bacillus - 96; Media and biochemical tests for the identification of aerobic spoilage organisms in canned foods - 96; Test for catalase formation - 97; Growth under anaerobic condition - 97; Voges-Proskauer(VP)Test - 97; Acidfrom sugars - 97; Gas formation from glucose - 97; Hydrolysis of casein - 98; Hydrolysis of gelatin - 98; Hydrolysis of starch - 98; Utilisation of citrate - 98; Test for lecithinase - 99; Indole formation - 99; Reduction of nitrate to nitrite - 99; Growth in nutrient broths of different pH - 99; Growth at different concentrations of NaCI - 100; Temperature relationship - 109; Identification of anaerobic organisms belonging to genus Clostridium - 100; Basal medium - 103; Sugar-free basal medium - 103; Test sugar solutions - 106; Starch solution - 106; Culturing of test organism - 106; Determination of the characteristics of test organism - 106; Determination of oxygen requirements - 106; Test for catalase - 106; Gram staining - 106; Spore staining - 106; Motility of the organisms - 107; Gelatin medium - 107; Test for gelatin hydrolysis - 107; Glucose acid - 108; Production of indole - 108; Test for the production of lecithinase and lipase - 109; Hydrolysis of esculin -110; Hydrolysis of starch -110; Nitrate reduction - 110; Hydrolysis of sugars - IIO; Changes in milk by the organism - Ill; Digestion of meat -III; Procedure of identification -III; Test for toxin production and pathogenicity of the test organism - 113; References - lB. 6. Thermal Process Determination Determination of thermal resistance of spoilage organisms - II5; Thermal resistance of bacterial spores - II 6; Inherent resistance - II 7; Environmental factors - II 7; Cultivation of test organisms - II 9; Spore counting - 121; Determination of thermal death time of spores - p4; Determination by tube technique - 124; Phosphate buffer as a reference medium - 127; Determination of decimal reduction time of spores - 127; Determination of D-value - 127; Correction for heating lag - 131; Graphical method - HI; Formula method _ 132; Plotting of thermal death time (TDT) and thermal resistance curves - 135; Significance of z value - 136; Classical F,D and z values - 137; Terms used for describing death rate - 138; References - 141. 98 1I5 Contents xv 7. Designing of Thennal Process for Low-Acid Foods 145 Heat resistant spoilage microorganisms - 146; Non-pathogenic heat resistant spoilage organisms - 148; Thermophilic spoilage organisms - 153; Pathogenic organisms - 158; References - 162. 8. Calculation of Process Time 166 Measurement of heat penetration into canned foods - 166; Factors affecting heat penetration - 168; Check of test equipment and retort function - 169; Temperature distribution and product heating rate in the retort - 170; Uniformity of heating medium temperature - 170; Uniformity of product heating rate - 171; Data collection and test documentation (NFPA, 1985) - 173; Calculation of process time - 176; Group-I procedures - 177; Graphical method - 177; Improved graphical method - 179; Equal time interval procedure - 183; Formula method - 185; Critical appraisal of Ball's formula method - 191; Group-II procedures - 193; Which procedure to use? - 194; Determination of thermal process for canned bitter gourd (Karela) in brine - 194; Product exhibiting broken heating curve - 212; Inoculated pack studies -218; Process calculation by count reduction technique - 219; Conversion of heating rate from one size of can size to another - 220; Process evaluation for foods packed in flexible packages - 223; Temperature measurement and process evaluation - 225; Factors affecting heat penetration measurement - 227; Thermocouple entry into the flexible container - 227; Thermocouple positioning 228; 'Connectors and leads - 231; Test retort 232; Test size 232; Thermal process determination -232; Testing requirements for flexible packaging material - 232; References - 234. 9. Thermal Process Determination for Acid Foods (pH S4.6) 239 Acid products (pH 4.0 - 4.6) - 239; Acid products (pH <4.0) -243; Byssochlamys fulva and Byssochlamys nivea - 243; Isolation and identification of moulds-B. fulva and B. nivea- 243; Heat resistant enzymes - 245; Factors affecting the heat resistance of enzymes - 245; Determination of thermal inactivation time (TIT) of enzymes - 247; Test for inactivation of enzymes 248; Quantitative estimation of enzymes - 249; Peroxidase -250; Polyphenolase activity - 252; Pectinesterase (PE) activity - 253; Determination of TIT and D-value of enzymes - 254; Designing of thermal process for acid products (pH ~ 4.6) - 256; Thermal process schedule for canned fruits - 261; Thermal process for canned pulps - 262; References - 267. 10. Packaging Materials for Processed Foods 270 MetalCans- 270; Materials used in can manufacture -270; The steel base -271; Thickness of steel base - 274; Mechanical properties - 276; Basic types of metal plate - 277; Surface finish (ITRI - 622)- 280; The tin coating - 279; Passivation treatment - 281; Marking of differentially- coated plate - 282; K grade tinplate - 282; Grading of tinplate -282; General - 283; Tin-free-steel (TFS) sheets - 284; Tinplate and its application - 285; Aluminium cans - 286; The open-top can - 287; Manufacture of three-piece cans - 288; Bodymaking - 288; Side seam welding - 288; Can ends - 291; Flanging, beading and double seaming - 293; ------ xvi Contents Lacquers and their application - 295; Plastic lamination - 301; The future for can coatings - 301; Discolouration in lacquered cans - 302; Lacquer performance (ITRI -622) - 304; The cans - 304; The two-piece can - 304; DRD cans - 304; D&Ior DWI cans - 305; Container innovations - 306; Corrosion of tinplate - 307; Corrosion in lacquered cans - 308; Permissible limits of tin (ITRI) - 310; Limits for lead - 310; Can sizes - 310; Inspection and tear-down examination of double seam - 313; Critical parameters - 314; Performance testing - 316; Selection of tin coating depending on the corrosivity of packs - 318; Specifications for the metal cans - 318; Testing of tinplate and lacquers - 323. Glass Containers - 323; Composition of glass - 324; Improvements in glass manufacture - 325; Lightweight containers - 326; Glass container characteristics - 328; Basic parts of a glass container - 328; Closures for glass containers - 329; Vacuum closures for glass containers - 332; Sealing of glass containers - 333; Crown corks -334; Procedure for determining capper efficiency - 334; Evaluation of glass container closures - 335; Sampling plan and inspection - 338. PlasticPackagingMaterial - 340; General properties - 341; Pack requirements - 347; Fabrication of flexible and rigid plastic packages - 350; Container fabrication - 351; Closures for retortable plastic containers - 353; Cartons for liquids - 357; Packaging requirements for distribution - 358; Off-flavours in packed food - 358; Economic considerations - 361; References - 362. n. Sterilisation of Foods in Retort Processing methods for foods -368; Basic features of a retort - 370; Retort and crate diameter - 374; Divider plates - 374; Control instruments - 374; Location of the retort - 376; Calculation of steam requirements for thermal processing of canned foods - 376; Steam consumption - 376; Compressed air - 378; Steam connection - 379; Operation of a vertical retort - 380; Cooling of processed cans - 386; Effect of altitude on the boiling point of water - 387; Problems in processing and their solutions - 388; Horizontal retort 390; Packaging and processing of foods in glass containers - 391: Glass jars-filling, capping and processing conditions - 393; Processing of glass containers in the vertical retorts - 395; Mercury thermometer-installation, adjustment and standard -396; References - 396. 12. Canning of Vegetables and Animal Products Asparagus - 339; Beans - 400; Cabbage - 402; Carrots - 402; Cauliflower- 403; Com - 404;Drumstick- 409; Gourds(cucurbits)-410; Mushroom - 411; Okra - 414; Peas - 415; Potato - 416; Spinach- 417; Tomato- 418; Canning of acidified vegetables - 419; Thermal process schedule for marine and animal products - 428; References - 432. 13. Canning of Fruit Products pH considerations in the canning of fruits - 435; Strength of covering syrup - 435; Pink discolouration in canned fruits- 436; Apricot - 436; Cherries - 437; Guava - 438; Grapes - 439; Mango - 439; Muskmelon (cucumis melo) - 439; Mandarin orange (citrus reticulate, Blanco) segments - 440; Papaya (carica papaya) - 440; Peaches - 441; Pears - 443; Pineapple - 445; Plums - 447; 371 399 435 Contents xvii Canned dried prunes - 447; Strawberries -448; Fruit cocktail - 449; Strained baby foods -449; Fruit juices, beverages, pulps and concentrates -452; Hot-fillhold- cool process - 453; Tomato juice - 457; References - 459. 14. Aseptic Processing and Packaging of Foods The aseptic process - 461; Aseptic process in retrospect - 462; Aseptic processing and packaging sysem - 471; Product heat exchangers - 472; Holding section - 477; Cooling of sterilised product - 481; Temperature measurement. 481; Back pressure control - 482; Aseptic surge tank - 483; Flow diversion valve - 483; Maintenance of sterility 483; Cleaning of the equipment -483; Sterilisation of the processing equipment - 484; Microbial inhibition in aseptically packed foods-basic considerations - 484; Filling and dosing equipment - 489; Sealing - 489; Sterile air - 490; Packaging material - 491; Packaging material - storage, handling, and transpiration - 492; Sterilisation requirements of packaging material - 492; The extent of risk of infection in aseptic packaging - 493; Auxiliary facilities needed for aseptic packaging - 494; Safeguards - 494; Procedures to test the sterility of the food processing equipment - 495; Aseptic processing of foods with particulates foods - 496; Designing of process for aseptic packaging of particulate foods -497; Fluidised steam bed - 500; Ohmic heating - 500; Microwave heating - 501; Methods for non-invasive sterility control of aseptically packaged foods - 503; Measurement of heat transfer to particulate material - 504; Assessing the microbial safety of the aseptic process - 505; Quality control - 506; Implementation of hazard analysis critical control point (HACCP) system for total quality assurance - 507; The cook value -507; Changes during storage- kinetics - 508; A total systems approach for predicting shelf-life of packaged product - 509; References - 512. 15. HACCP and ISO 9000 What is HACCP? - 519; How did the HACCP method arise? - 520; The basis of RACCP - 520; Who can use HACCP approach? 520; In what way does the RACCP benefit? - 521; Steps in installing the HACCP programme - 521; Quality assurance and/or hazard control - 522; Implementation of the HACCP programme - 522; A few thoughts in applying HACCP - 530; Knowledge base needed for HACCP installation - 530; Regulatory measures - 531; HACCP and ISO 9000 - 531; ISO 9000 clauses and HACCP -535; How does ISO 9000 work? - 559; Procedure for ISO 9000 registration - 560; Certification for IS: 14000 standards in India - 560; Concluding remarks - 561; References and suggested literature - 561. 16. Sanitation in Food Processing Plants Recommended international code of practice: General principles of food hygiene (CAC/RCP' 1969) -- 563; Environmental sanitation in the cultivation of food materials - 563; Plant facilities and operating requirements - 564; End product specifications - 568; Sanitation design and practice - 568; Equipment designconstruction and materials - 569; Plant design and construction - 571; Cleaning procedure in the factory - 571; Cleaning methods - 571; Type of durt and soil - 572; Sources of water supply (Clinger, 1971) - 573; The criteria for 461 519 563 xviii Contents cleanliness - 574; Control of microorganisms - 574; Control of files, insects, birds, and rodents -576; Safety of handling pesticides - 578; Sanitation inside the plant - 578; Cleaning methods (clinger, 1971; USPHS, 1962) - 579; Plant sanitation - 582; Facilities for workers - 582; Assessment of cleaning - 584; Disinfectants (clinger, 1971) - 584; Sanitation using chemicals - 586; Sanitation audit of cannery-Reporting system - 587; Laboratory aids, sampling techniques and interpretation - 599; References - 603.