Compostable polymer materials

Preface vii Symbols and abbreviations xi CHAPTER 1 Introduction 3 1.1 Situation in Europe 4 1.2 Situation in the United States 6 1.3 Situation in other regions of the world 6 References 7 CHAPTER 2 Compostable polymer materials – definitions, structures and methods of preparation 11 2.1 Biodegradable polymers from renewable resources 14 2.2 Other compostable polymers from renewable resources 25 2.3 Biodegradable polymers from petrochemical sources 28 References 35 CHAPTER 3 Properties and applications 39 3.1 Biodegradable polymers from renewable resources 39 3.2 Biodegradable polymers from petrochemical sources 52 3.3 Blends 60 3.4 Summary 63 References 64 CHAPTER 4 Thermal and thermooxidative degradation 73 4.1 Biodegradable polymers from renewable resources 73 4.2 Biodegradable polymers from petrochemical sources 77 4.3 Blends 79 4.4 Summary of thermal stability of compostable polymer materials 80 References 83 CHAPTER 5 Composting methods and legislation 89 5.1 Composting definitions 89 5.2 Composting process and methods 89 5.3 Composting of biodegradable polymers 98 5.4 Labelling systems in different regions 103 5.5 Cooperation between certification and labelling systems 108 References 109 CHAPTER 6 Biodegradability testing of compostable polymer materials 113 6.1 Definitions related to biodegradation testing 113 6.2 International standards related to composting 115 6.3 Principles of main standards related to composting and biodegradability testing 117 6.4 Composting at laboratory scale 123 6.5 Biodegradability testing methods 127 6.6 Biodegradation of biodegradable polymers from renewable resources 130 6.7 Biodegradation of biodegradable polymers from petrochemical sources 142 6.8 Biodegradation of blends 153 6.9 Summary of composting 159 References 159 CHAPTER 7 Ecotoxicological assessment 169 7.1 Introduction 169 7.2 Definitions 170 7.3 Methods 170 7.4 Compostable polymers ecotoxicity testing 176 7.5 Conclusions 177 References 180 CHAPTER 8 Environmental impact of compostable polymer materials 183 8.1 Introduction 183 8.2 Life cycle assessment methodology 183 8.3 Life cycle assessment of poly(lactic acid) 186 8.4 Polyhydroxyalkanoates 187 8.5 Starch-based polymers 191 8.6 Blends 192 8.7 Overview 194 8.8 Conclusions 197 References 198 CHAPTER 9 Perspectives 203 9.1 Price evolution 203 9.2 Capacity 204 9.3 Legislation initiatives 204 9.4 Demand estimation 206 9.5 Conclusions 207 References 208 Index 209