Introduction to biomedical engineering

PREFACE xiii CONTRIBUTORS TO THE FIRST EDITION xv CONTRIBUTORS TO THE SECOND EDITION xix 1 BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING: A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE 1 1.1 Evolution of the Modern Health Care System 2 1.2 The Modern Health Care System 10 1.3 What Is Biomedical Engineering? 17 1.4 Roles Played by Biomedical Engineers 23 1.5 Professional Status of Biomedical Engineering 24 1.6 Professional Societies 26 Exercises 28 References and Suggested Reading 29 2 MORAL AND ETHICAL ISSUES 31 2.1 Morality and Ethics: A Definition of Terms 33 vii 2.2 Two Moral Norms: Beneficence and Nonmaleficence 40 2.3 Redefining Death 41 2.4 The Terminally Ill Patient and Euthanasia 45 2.5 Taking Control 49 2.6 Human Experimentation 49 2.7 Definition and Purpose of Experimentation 51 2.8 Informed Consent 53 2.9 Regulation of Medical Device Innovation 59 2.10 Marketing Medical Devices 61 2.11 Ethical Issues in Feasibility Studies 63 2.12 Ethical Issues in Emergency Use 65 2.13 Ethical Issues in Treatment Use 68 2.14 The Role of the Biomedical Engineer in the FDA Process 69 Exercises 70 Suggested Reading 71 3 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 73 3.1 Introduction 74 3.2 Cellular Organization 76 3.3 Tissues 92 3.4 Major Organ Systems 94 3.5 Homeostasis 119 Exercises 121 Suggested Reading 125 4 BIOMECHANICS 127 4.1 Introduction 128 4.2 Basic Mechanics 131 4.3 Mechanics of Materials 151 4.4 Viscoelastic Properties 159 4.5 Cartilage, Ligament, Tendon, and Muscle 163 4.6 Clinical Gait Analysis 169 4.7 Cardiovascular Dynamics 186 Exercises 207 Suggested Reading 209 5 REHABILITATION ENGINEERING AND ASSISTIVE TECHNOLOGY 211 5.1 Introduction 212 viii CONTENTS 5.2 The Human Component 218 5.3 Principles of Assistive Technology Assessment 224 5.4 Principles of Rehabilitation Engineering 227 5.5 Practice of Rehabilitation Engineering and Assistive Technology 239 Exercises 243 Suggested Reading 252 6 BIOMATERIALS 255 6.1 Materials in Medicine: From Prosthetics to Regeneration 256 6.2 Biomaterials: Properties, Types, and Applications 258 6.3 Lessons from Nature on Biomaterial Design and Selection 276 6.4 Tissue–Biomaterial Interactions 281 6.5 Guiding Tissue Repair with Bio-Inspired Biomaterials 290 6.6 Safety Testing and Regulation of Biomaterials 296 6.7 Application-Specific Strategies for the Design and Selection of Biomaterials 301 Exercises 310 Suggested Reading 311 7 TISSUE ENGINEERING 313 7.1 What Is Tissue Engineering? 314 7.2 Biological Considerations 331 7.3 Physical Considerations 360 7.4 Scaling Up 382 7.5 Implementation of Tissue Engineered Products 386 7.6 Future Directions: Functional Tissue Engineering and the ‘‘-Omics’’ Sciences 390 7.7 Conclusions 393 7.8 Glossary 393 Exercises 395 Suggested Reading 400 8 BIOINSTRUMENTATION 403 8.1 Introduction 404 8.2 Basic Bioinstrumentation System 407 8.3 Charge, Current, Voltage, Power, and Energy 408 8.4 Resistance 415 8.5 Linear Network Analysis 425 8.6 Linearity and Superposition 432 CONTENTS ix 8.7 The´venin’s Theorem 436 8.8 Inductors 439 8.9 Capacitors 442 8.10 A General Approach to Solving Circuits Involving Resistors, Capacitors, and Inductors 446 8.11 Operational Amplifiers 455 8.12 Time-Varying Signals 468 8.13 Active Analog Filters 474 8.14 Bioinstrumentation Design 484 Exercises 487 Suggested Reading 504 9 BIOMEDICAL SENSORS 505 9.1 Introduction 506 9.2 Biopotential Measurements 508 9.3 Physical Measurements 513 9.4 Blood Gases and pH Sensors 527 9.5 Bioanalytical Sensors 536 9.6 Optical Biosensors 539 Exercises 545 Suggested Reading 548 10 BIOSIGNAL PROCESSING 549 10.1 Introduction 550 10.2 Physiological Origins of Biosignals 551 10.3 Characteristics of Biosignals 554 10.4 Signal Acquisition 557 10.5 Frequency Domain Representation of Biological Signals 562 10.6 Linear Systems 584 10.7 Signal Averaging 597 10.8 Wavelet Transform and Short-Time Fourier Transform 605 10.9 Artificial Intelligence Techniques 612 Exercises 619 Suggested Reading 624 11 BIOELECTRIC PHENOMENA 627 11.1 Introduction 628 11.2 History 629 x CONTENTS 11.3 Neurons 637 11.4 Basic Biophysics Tools and Relationships 642 11.5 Equivalent Circuit Model for the Cell Membrane 653 11.6 Hodgkin–Huxley Model of the Action Potential 664 11.7 Model of the Whole Neuron 680 Exercises 684 Suggested Reading 690 12 PHYSIOLOGICAL MODELING 693 12.1 Introduction 694 12.2 Compartmental Modeling 698 12.3 An Overview of the Fast Eye Movement System 723 12.4 Westheimer Saccadic Eye Movement Model 728 12.5 The Saccade Controller 735 12.6 Development of an Oculomotor Muscle Model 738 12.7 A Linear Muscle Model 751 12.8 A Linear Homeomorphic Saccadic Eye Movement Model 757 12.9 A Truer Linear Homeomorphic Saccadic Eye Movement Model 763 12.10 System Identification 773 Exercises 788 Suggested Reading 797 13 GENOMICS AND BIOINFORMATICS 799 13.1 Introduction 800 13.2 Core Laboratory Technologies 804 13.3 Core Bioinformatics Technologies 812 13.4 Conclusion 828 Exercises 829 Suggested Reading 830 14 COMPUTATIONAL CELL BIOLOGY AND COMPLEXITY 833 14.1 Computational Biology 834 14.2 The Modeling Process 835 14.3 Bionetworks 846 14.4 Introduction to Complexity Theory 849 Exercises 852 Suggested Readings 854 CONTENTS xi 15 RADIATION IMAGING 857 15.1 Introduction 858 15.2 Emission Imaging Systems 859 15.3 Instrumentation and Imaging Devices 876 15.4 Radiographic Imaging Systems 882 Exercises 902 Suggested Reading 904 16 MEDICAL IMAGING 905 16.1 Introduction 906 16.2 Diagnostic Ultrasound Imaging 908 16.3 Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) 940 16.4 Comparison of Imaging Modes 969 Exercises 972 Suggested Reading 975 17 BIOMEDICAL OPTICS AND LASERS 977 17.1 Introduction to Essential Optical Principles 979 17.2 Fundamentals of Light Propagation in Biological Tissue 985 17.3 Physical Interaction of Light and Physical Sensing 997 17.4 Biochemical Measurement Techniques Using Light 1006 17.5 Fundamentals of Photothermal Therapeutic Effects of Lasers 1015 17.6 Fiber Optics and Waveguides in Medicine 1026 17.7 Biomedical Optical Imaging 1033 Exercises 1039 Suggested Reading 1042 Appendix 1045 Index 1085 xii