Handbook of milk composition

Contributors v Foreword vii Preface ix CHAPTER I Introduction ROBERT G. JENSEN I. Purpose I II. General Description of Milks z References 3 CHAPTER 2 The Structure of Milk: Implications for Sampling and Storage A. The Milk Lipid Globule Membrane THOMAS W. KEENAN AND STUART PATON I. lntracellular Origin and Growth of Milk Lipid Globules 5 II. Role of lntracellular Lipid Droplet Coat Material 7 Ill. Milk Lipid Globule Secretion 8 IV. Nature and Frequency of Cytoplasmic Crescents 10 V. Size and Membrane Area Distribution of Milk Lipid Globules 14 VI. Nature of Milk Llipid Globule Membranes 16 Contents VII. Reorganization of the Membrane during Storage and Processing 36 References 44 B. Particulate Constituents in Human and Bovine Milks ROBERT G. JENSEN, BERNARD BLANC, AND STUART PATTON I. Introduction 50 II; Cells and Membrane Fragments 53 Ill. Emulsion Parameters 56 IV. Casein Micelles 58 V. Summary 60 References 61 C. Sampling and Storage of Human Milk MARGARET C. NEVILLE I. Introduction 63 II. Mechanisms of Milk Secretion and Ejection 63 Ill. Methods for Obtaining a Representative Milk Sample 68 IV. Sources of Change in Milk Composition during Storage 7 1 V. Recommendations for Storage of Milk Samples 73 VI. Summary 76 References 77 D. Sampling and Storage of Bovine Milk ROBERT G. JENSEN I. Introduction 79 II. Sampling 79 111. Storage 80 References 80 E. The Physical Properties of Human and Bovine Milks MARGARET C. NEVILLE AND ROBERT G. JENSEN I. Introduction 81 II. Electrical Conductivity 8 1 Ill. Freezing Point 82 IV. Boiling Point 82 V. Osmolality or Osmotic Pressure VI. pH 83 Contents VII. Specific Gravity 84 VIII. Surface Tension 84 IX. Titratable Acidity 84 X. Specific Heat 85 XI. Coefficient of Expansion 85 XII. Viscosity 85 References 85 CHAPTER 3 Determinants of Milk Volume and Composition A. Lactogenesis in Women: A Cascade of Events Revealed by Milk Composition MARGARET C. NEVILLE I. Introduction 87 II. The Physiological Basis of Lactogenesis 88 Ill. The Composition of the Preparation Mammary Secretion 89 IV. Implications of Changes in Milk Composition during Lactogenesis 92 V. Summary and Conclusions 96 References 97 B. Volume and Caloric Density of Human Milk MARGARET C. NEVILLE I. Introduction 99 II. Methods for Measurement of Milk Volume 100 Ill. Milk Volumes in Exclusively Breast-Feeding Women 106 IV. Breast Milk Volumes Transferred to Partially Breast-Fed Infants 108 V. Caloric Density of Human Milk 108 VI. Conclusions 110 References 111 C. Volume and Caloric Density of Bovine Milk ROBERT G. JENSEN I. Volume 114 II. Calorie Density 114 References 114 D. Regional Variations in the Composition of Human Milk ANN PRENTICE I. Summary 115 References 217 E. Effects of Gestational Stage at Delivery on Human Milk Components STEPHANIE A. ATKINSON I. Introduction 222 II. Nitrogen Composition of Preterm Milk 224 Ill. Acid-Soluble Nitrogen Fraction of Preterm Milk 226 IV. Macrominerals and Electrolytes 227 V. Trace Elements 227 VI. Vitamins 229 VII. Physiological Basis of Preterm Milk Composition 229 VIII. Summary 234 References 234 F. Miscellaneous Factors Affecting Composition and Volume of Human and Bovine Milks ROBERT G. JENSEN I. Introduction 237 II. Human Milk 237 Ill. Bovine Milk 260 References 267 CHAPTER 4 Carbohydrates in Milks: Analysis, Quantities, and Significance DAVID S. NEWBURG AND SUZANNE H. NEUBAUER I. Introduction 273 II. Analytical Measurement of Carbohydrates in Milk 274 Ill. Human Milk Lactose 280 IV. Human Milk Glucose 288 V. Human Milk Galactose 289 VI. Human Milk Oligosaccharides 289 VII. Lactose in Nonhuman Milk 302 VIII. Other Carbohydrates in Nonhuman Milk 303 IX. Summary 336 X. Speculation on Functions of Lactose 336 References 338 CHAPTER 5 Nitrogenous Components of Milk A. Human Milk Proteins BO L~NNERDAALN D STEPHANIE ATKINSON I. Introduction 35 I II. Caseins 353 Ill. Whey Proteins 358 References 364 B. Nonprotein Nitrogen Fractions of Human Milk STEPHANIE A. ATKINSON AND BO L~NNERDAL I. Acid-Soluble Nitrogen Fraction 369 II. Components of Acid-Soluble Nitrogen Fraction 374 Ill. Factors Affecting Milk Acid-Soluble Nitrogen Composition 38 1 IV. Quantitative Recovery of Components in the Acid-Soluble Fraction of Milk 382 V. Summary 383 References 385 C. Enzymes in Human Milk MARGIT HAMOSH I. Introduction 388 II. Milk Enzymes Active Mainly in the Mammary Gland 388 Ill. Milk Enzymes without Well-Defined Function 398 IV. Milk Enzymes Important in Neonatal Development 402 References 416 D. Hormones and Growth Factors in Human Milk OTAKAR KOLDOVSK~A ND VLADIMIR STRBAK I. Introduction 428 II. Explanation of Data 428 References 432 X Contents E. Nucleotides and Related Compounds in Human and Bovine Milks ANGEL GIL AND RICARDO UAUY I. Introduction 436 II. Analytical Methodology 439 Ill. Composition of Nucleotides and Related Compounds in Milk IV. Significance of Dietary Nucleotides in Infant Nutrition 456 V. Summary 460 References 461 F. Protein and Amino Acid Composition of Bovine Milk HAROLD E. SWAISGOOD I. Introduction 464 11. Protein Composition 464 Ill. Amino Acid Composition 465 References 467 G. Nonprotein Nitrogen Compounds in Bovine Milk BRENDA ALSTON-MILLS I. Nitrogen Content of Milk 468 II. Milk NPN 469 References 470 H. Enzymes Indigenous to Bovine Milk HAROLD E. SWAISGOOD I. Introduction 472 II. Enzymes of Technological Significance 475 References 476 I. Hormones and Growth Factors in Bovine Milk W. M. CAMPANA AND C. R BAUMRUCKER I. Introduction 476 11. Hormones 479 111. Summary 488 References 489 Contents CHAPTER 6 Milk Lipids A. Human Milk Lipids ROBERT G. JENSEN.]OEL BITMAN. SUSAN E. CARLSON, SARAH C. COUCH, MARGIT HAMOSH, AND DAVID S. NEWBURG I. Introduction 495 II. Collection, Preparation, and Storage of Samples 496 Ill. Determinations of Lipid Content 497 IV. Factors Affecting Total Lipid Content 497 V. Lipid Classes 497 References 537 B. Bovine Milk Lipids ROBERT G. JENSEN AND DAVID S. NEWBURG I. Introduction 543 II. Collection, Preparation, and Storage of Samples 543 Ill. Determination of Lipid Content 543 IV. Factors Affecting Total Lipid Content 544 V. Lipid Classes 544 VI. Summary 572 References 573 CHAPTER 7 Minerals, Ions, and Trace Elements in Milk A. Ionic Interactions in Milk MARGARET C. NEVILLE, PEIFANG ZHANG, AND JONATHAN C. ALLEN I. Introduction 577 II. Methodologies 578 Ill. Hydrogen Ion Equilibria in Milk 582 IV. Distribution of Monovalent Ions in Milk 582 V. Distribution of Divalent Cations among the Structural Compartments of Milk 583 VI. Calcium and Zinc Binding to Casein 585 xii Contents VII. Divalent Cation Equilibria in the Aqueous Compartment of Milk 586 VIII. Summary and Conclusions 590 References 590 B. Major Minerals and Ionic Constitutents of Human and Bovine Milks STEPHANIE ATKINSON, BRENDA ALSTON-MILLS, BO LONNERDAL, AND MARGARET C. NEVILLE I. Introduction 593 II. Major Monovalent Ions: Sodium, Potassium, and Chloride 593 Ill. Divalent lons: Calcium, Magnesium, Citrate, Phosphate, and Sulfate 600 References 619 C. Microminerals in Human and Animal Milks CLARE E. CASEY, ANNE SMITH, AND PEIFANG ZHANG I. Nutritional Aspects of Microminerals 622 II. Microminerals in Milks 626 Ill. Radioisotopes 656 References 66 1 CHAPTER 8 Vitamins in Milk A. Water-Soluble Vitamins in Human Milk MARY FRANCES PICCIANO I. Introduction 675 II. Methodological Considerations 675 Ill. Factors That Influence Water-Soluble Vitamin Concentrations in Human Milk 676 IV. Water-Soluble Vitamin Contents of Human Milk 679 V. Summary 685 References 686 B. Water-Soluble Vitamins in Bovine Milk ROBERT G. JENSEN I. Introduction 688 II. Forms and Stability 688 Contents 111. Summary 69 1 References 692 C. Carotenoids, Retinoids, and Vitamin K in Human Milk LOUISE M. CANFIELD, ANNA R GIULIANO, AND ELLEN 1. GRAVER I. Introduction 693 II. Retinoids 693 Ill. Carotenoids 698 IV. Vitamin K 700 V. Fat-Soluble Vitamins-Methodological Considerations References 703 D. Vitamins D and E in Human Milk CAROL J. LAMMI-KEEFE I. Introduction 706 11. Vitamin D 706 111. Vitamin E 710 References 715 E. Fat-Soluble Vitamins in Bovine Milk ROBERT G. JENSEN I. Introduction 718 11. Carotenoids and Retinoids 718 111. Vitamin D 720 IV. Tocopherols (Vitamin E) 72 I V. Vitamin K 723 References 724 CHAPTER 9 Defense Agents in Milk A. Defense Agents in Human Milk ARMOND S. GOLDMAN AND RANDALL M. GOLDBLUM I. Introduction 727 II. Types of Defense Agents in Human Milk 728 Ill. Coda 738 References 738 B. Defense Agents in Bovine Milk ROBERT G. JENSEN I. Introduction 746 11. Lysozyme 746 Ill. Lactoferrin 746 IV. Lactoperoxidases 747 V. immunoglobulins 747 VI. Vitamin-Binding Proteins VII. Lipids 747 VIII. Summary 748 References 748 CHAPTER 10 Comparative Analysis of Nonhuman Milks A. Phylogenetic Variation in the Gross Composition of Milks OIAV T. OFTEDAL AND SARA J. IVERSON I. Introduction 749 II. Factors Affecting Milk Composition Data 750 Ill. Phylogenetic Patterns in Milk Composition 770 IV. Conclusion 779 References 780 B. Phylogenetic and Ecological Variation in the Fatty Acid Composition of Milks SARA 1. IVERSON AND OLAV T. OFTEDAL I. Introduction 790 II. The Sources of Fatty Acids among Species 790 Ill. Considerations in Sampling and Analysis of Milk Fatty Acids 792 IV. Selection Criteria for the Milk Fatty Acid Table 796 V. Patterns of Milk Fatty Acids among Taxonomic Groups 798 VI. Conclusions 822 References 823 C. Comparative Analysis of Milks Used for Human Consumption BRENDA P. ALSTON-MILLS I. Introduction 828 II. Chemical Properties of Milks 829 Contents Ill. Uses for Milks of Domesticated Animals 832 IV. Summary 833 References 833 D. Infant Formulas ROBERT G. JENSEN, SARAH C. COUCH, JAMES W. HANSEN, ERIC L. LIEN, KARIN M. OSTROM, UMBERTO BRACCO, AND ROGER A. CLEMENS I. Introduction 835 11. Composition 835 References 837 CHAPTER I I Contaminants in Milk A. Drugs and Contaminants in Human Milk RUTH A. LAWRENCE AND LINDA R FRIEDMAN I. Contaminants 857 II. Chemical Constituents of Human Milk 858 Ill. Pharmacokinetic Approach to Drug Transport into Milk 859 IV. Properties of Substances That Influence Distribution in Milk 868 V. The Characteristics of the Infant 870 VI. Substances That Influence Milk Production 87 1 VII. Exposure to a "Recreational Drugv-Nicotine 872 VIII. Environmental Substances in Milk 873 IX. Heavy Metal as Contaminants in Human Milk 874 X. Insecticides 877 XI. Other Environmental Contaminants 879 XII. Concluding Thoughts 880 References 880 B. Contaminants in Bovine Milk ROBERT G. JENSEN I. Introduction 887 II. Chlorinated Pesticides and Related Compounds: PCBs, PBBs, and Dioxins 888 Ill. Veterinary and Other Drugs 89 1 IV. Detergents and Disinfectants 895 V. Mycotoxins 896 Contents VI. Metals 897 VII. Radionuclides 899 VIII. Summary 900 References 900 CHAPTER I2 Summary 903 ROBERT G. JENSEN Index 905