The MIT encyclopedia of the cognitive sciences

Aboutness, 1 Absolute conic, 803 Abstraction of numbers, 36 ABSTRIPS, 653 Accommodation, 227 Accurate understanding, 46 Acetylcholine, 605 A-chains, 822 Acheulean industry, 828 Acoustic vs. articulatory, 793 Acoustic-phonetic approach, 790 Acquisition, formal theories of, cvii, 1–3, 324, 342 computational learning theory, 1 language acquisition, 1 Acquisition of language, 3 Acquisition of phonology, 3 Acquisition of semantics, 3 Acquisition of syntax, 3 ACT*, 125 ACT-based computational models of cognition, 261 Action, 3 Activity theory, 126, 768 Adaptation, 18, 291, 647 Adaptation and adaptationism, xxxiv, xxxv, 3–4, 13, 39, 113, 151, 211, 219, 286, 293, 296, 383, 738, 752 evolutionary psychology and, 3 Adaptation-level theory, 472 Adaptive consistency, 196 Affordance of falling, 633 Affordances, xlvi, xlviii, cxxiii, cxxviii, 4–6, 130, 255, 256, 346, 350, 416, 634, 679, 733, 746, 753, 786 Agency, 6 Aging and cognition, xlvii, xlviii, lxviii, 6–7, 9, 64, 120, 602 Aging and memory, 7 Aging, memory, and the brain, lxvi, lxvii, 7–9, 120, 279, 395, 522, 572, 602, 889 Agnosia, 615 Akaike’s information criterion (AIC), 628 Algorithm, lxxiii, lxxv, xcii, xciv, 11–12, 117, 137, 155, 156, 163, 186, 195, 245, 246, 337, 357, 373, 406, 497, 539, 836 A-Life, 12, 37 Allostatic load, 807 ALOPEX, 836 Alpha-beta algorithm, 539 Altruism, cxiii, cxiv, 4, 12–14, 201, 219, 285, 297, 417, 783 Alvinn system, 724 Alzheimer’s disease, 469, 606, 876 Ambiguity, c, ci, 14–15, 135, 231, 336, 514, 695, 740, 750, 861 Ambler, 881 American Association on Mental Retardation (AAMR), 530 American Psychological Association (APA), 530 American Sign Language, 669, 757, 758 Amodal completion, 817 Amygdala, 8, 184, 269, 270, 271, 493, 518, 522, 523, 602, 613, 806, 835 primate, lxvi, lxvii, 15–17, 311, 618, 666 Analog retrieval by constraint satisfaction (ARCS), 19 Analogical constraint-mapping engine (ACME), 18 Analogical inference, 400 Analogy, xliv, xlv, xlvii, xlviii, 17–20, 29, 100, 105, 158, 301, 314, 399, 400, 409, 461, 526, 528, 537, 538, 730, 732, 763 concepts, 17 learning, 17 mapping, 18 mental models, 17 Anaphora, xcii, xciv, 20–22, 86, 232, 248, 360, 364, 487, 549, 622, 666, 718, 740, 819, 825 binding and, 20 covaluation and, 20 procedural restrictions and, 21 pronoun resolution procedures and, 20 variable binding and, 21 Animal cognition, 22 Animal communication, xviii, cvi, cxiii, cxiv, 22–24, 33, 53, 133, 150, 254, 289, 415, 438, 478, 775, 780, 781 Animal navigation, xxxv, xl, 22, 24–26, 133, 136, 382, 460, 553, 567, 594, 770, 780, 786 general abilities, 26 neural networks, 26–28, 136, 382, 460, 594 Animal studies, 270, 308 Animism, xlvii, xlviii, cxxi, cxxii, 28–30, 648 adults and, 29 and naive biology, 28 Animistic thinking, 29 Anomalous dualism, 30 Anomalous monism, xxiv, xxv, 30–31, 65, 268, 276, 547, 561, 646, 684, 691, 699, 713 ANOVA model, 106 Anthropology, 31 Anthropomorphism, 28 Antirealism, 31 Anytime algorithms, 539 Aphasia, lxvii, lxviii, cvi, cvii, 31–32, 97, 203, 251, 330, 343, 354, 442, 447, 449, 469, 643, 756, 841, 857 Broca’s area and, 31 connectionist/associationist approaches to, 31 history of the field, 31 link between types, 31 use of behavioral techniques and, 32 Applied psychology, 96 Apraxia, 369 Arc consistency algorithm, 195 Arc pair grammar, 718 Archaeology, 32 Architecture, 33 Aristotle, xxxii, lii, lxxxi Art, 33 Articulation, xci, xciv, 33–35, 235, 636, 639, 688, 788, 793 methodologies for studying, 33 as primary means of communication, 33 serial order and, 33 as suitable topic for cognitive science, 33 theories of, 34 Articulatory implementation, 643 Articulatory phonological planning, 643 Artifacts, 35 and civilization, cxxiv, 32, 35–37, 118, 127, 829 Artificial intelligence (AI), 37, 186, 294, 376 approach, 791 and education, xlvii, xlviii, 9–10, 37, 131, 432, 573 Artificial life, xxxiv, xxxv, lxxxiv, 12, 37–39, 75, 154, 295, 329, 471, 738, 878 as a cognitive science, 38 emergence and, 38 as mathematical biology, 37 methodology of, 38 and self-organizing systems, 37 technological applications of, 39 theoretical focus of, 37 Artificial neural networks (ANNs), 157 Artificial scotoma, 600 Artificial vision systems, 613 Aspartic acid, 606 Aspect, 39 Asperger syndrome, 59 Associationist theory, 128 Associative learning, 460 Assumption of pure insertion, 657 ATN hold registers, 102 Attention, xxxv, xxxix, lxiv, lxv, 5, 7, 32, 39–41, 43, 50, 63, 68, 78, 85, 95, 124, 128, 130, 135, 167, 176, 192, 194, 249, 263, 269, 275, 307, 402, 420, 423, 448, 460, 474, 533, 546, 567, 619, 753, 766, 773, 834, 842, 845, 867, 869, 873 human brain, and, 40 neurobiology as active topic of current research, 40 origins of information processing, 39 selective activation of goals, 40 selective perception in, 39 setting and switching, 40 study of, 40 Attention in the animal brain, xxxv, lxiv, lxv, 41–43, 45, 51, 194, 519 capacity limitation in, 42 dispersal of visual information, 42 dorsal and ventral streams in, 42 dynamic process of, 41 early activation of, 43 field of focal attention and, 42 Attention in the human brain, xxxv, lxiv, lxv, 43, 43–46, 51, 64, 96, 194, 264, 308, 565, 619, 842, 867, 869 cognitive studies and, 44 executive system in, 44 imaging techniques and, 44 PET studies and, 44 voluntary control, 44 Attribution theory, cxxv, cxxviii, 46–48, 234, 777, 778, 805 Audition, xxxix, 48–50, 56, 58, 235, 254, 366, 368, 633, 691, 757, 775, 789, 826 hearing range in humans, 48 physiological process of, 48 sound characteristics in, 48 tonotopic organization of, 48 Auditory attention, lxiv, lxv, 41, 45, 50–52, 56, 58, 64, 263, 446, 836 definition of, 50 event-related potential studies of, 50–51 neural mechanisms and, 50 positron emission tomography studies and, 51 selection theories of, 50 946 Subject Index Auditory physiology, lv, 51, 52–56, 254, 366, 584, 647, 775 Auditory plasticity, lxix, 49, 51, 56–58, 596, 654 Autism, xlvii, xlviii, 58–60, 69, 194, 320, 390, 417, 446, 496, 541, 559, 699, 736, 765, 838 language and thought and, 531 Autocatalysis, 60 Automata, xxix, lxxviii, lxxix, 60–63, 110, 125, 157, 158, 321, 339, 405, 513, 597, 651, 711, 737, 877 information processing and, 60 neurons and, 62 theory of, 597, 876 Turing machine as, 60–61 types of, 62 Automatic processing (AP), 63 Automaticity, xlvi, xlviii, 63–64, 460, 805 Autonomy of psychology, xxvi, xxix, xl, 30, 64–66, 266, 645, 713 multiple realization and, 65 naturalism and, 64 physicalism and, 64 positivism and, 64 propositional attitude and, 65 Autopoiesis, 37, 66 Axiomatic set theory, 351 Axis-parallel split, 224 B Backjumping, 196 Backpropagation, 66 Backpropagation-in-time, 711 Backtracking algorithm, 196 Backward induction paradox, 700 Baddeley, A. D., 97 Bartlett, xliii, xlv, 95, 252, 729 Bartlett, Frederic Charles, 66–67 contributions to cognitive science, 66 Basal ganglia, lxv, lxvi, 67–70, 149, 194, 270, 369, 473, 572, 605, 619, 644, 835 Basic local search, 357 Basket cells, 110 Bayes’s theorem, 673, 674 Bayesian analysis, 462 Bayesian inference, 401, 674 Bayesian information criterion (BIC), 628 Bayesian learning, lxxxii, 70–72, 74, 93, 159, 259, 339, 374, 401, 461, 462, 597, 630, 674 advantages of, 70 beta distributions in, 71 model averaging in, 72 thumbtack problem and, 70–71 Bayesian method, 815 Bayesian model averaging, 72 Bayesian networks, xxviii, xxix, lxxxii, lxxxiii, 72–74, 80, 93, 107, 259, 262, 374, 400, 404, 497, 551, 598, 610, 671, 674, 701, 710, 800, 854, 858 as environmental model, 73 variables in, 73 Bayesian probability theory, 400 Bayesian statistical methods, 597 Begriffsschrift, 489 Behavior arbitration, 75 Behavioral decision theory, 221 Behavior-based robotics, lxxviii, lxxix, lxxxvii, 74–77, 200, 382, 412, 510, 553, 717, 723, 881 planning-based deliberative control systems for, 75 subsumption architecture of, 74 Behaviorism, xix, xxi, xlv, lxxviii, lxxix, 5, 77–80, 90, 96, 150, 178, 183, 185, 258, 261, 275, 288, 346, 366, 387, 414, 458, 461, 559, 628, 632, 704, 729, 857 conceptualization, 78 and consciousness, 77 and creativity, 79 defined, 77 Belief networks, 80 Bell-Magendie law, lii, lvi Belouzov-Zhabotinskii, or BZ, reaction, 737 Berkeley, G., lv Best-stimulus, 826 Bias-variance trade-off, 224 Biconnected component method, 196 Bigram statistic, 593 Bilingualism and the brain, lxvii, lxviii, cviii, 80–81, 119, 371, 451, 470 age of acquisition in, 80 central issues in, 80 neuroimaging in, 81 Binding by neural synchrony, lxviii, lxxviii, lxxix, 81–84, 85, 176, 194, 353, 601 and cerebral cortex, 81 Binding problem, xliv, xlv, lxxviii, lxxix, 82, 85–86, 106, 125, 190, 313, 353, 428, 575 Binding theory, xxxiii, xciii, xciv, 20, 85, 86–88, 103, 364, 366, 487, 549, 564, 819, 823, 883 anaphora in, 86 early implementations of, 86 role of syntax in, 87 Biological adaptation, 3 Bit-bit theory, 576 Bizzi, 571 Blackboard architecture, 573 Blackboard of the mind, 890 Blindsight, xxxv, lxviii, 88–90, 192, 193, 420 Blood oxygen level-dependent (BOLD), 505, 656 Bloomfield, xciii, xciv, 422, 640, 727, 729 Bloomfield, Leonard, 90–91 Boas, cxv, cxxii, 507, 726 Boas, Franz, 91–92 concept of race and, 92 cultural evolution and, 91 cultural relativism of, 92 diffusionism and, 91 Boltzmann distribution, 710 Boltzmann machines, 92, 347, 709 Boolean satisfiability (SAT), 358 Boosting model, 159 Bounded rationality, lxxxviii, cxxv, cxxviii, 92–94, 158, 222, 259, 337, 339, 424, 486, 490, 539, 698, 700, 702, 705, 728, 861 and rational choice theory, 92 and utility theory, 92, 93 Bowditch’s laws, 690 Brain mapping, 94 Brentano, xxx, xxxii, 65, 327, 329, 413 Brentano, Franz, 94–95 thesis or doctrine of intentionality, 94 Brick uses test, 205 Bridge laws, 712 Bridge sciences, 713 British Sign Language, 758 Broadbent, xliv, xlv, 39, 66, 125 Broadbent, Donald E., 95–97 attraction to psychology, 96 Broadman’s areas, 756 Broca, lii, liii, lxvii, 271, 330, 343, 369, 449, 473, 557, 631 Broca, Paul, 97–98 concept of cortical localization, 97 study of aphasia and, 97 Broca’s aphasia, 97, 369, 449 Broca’s area, 97, 354, 371, 447, 449, 644 Broken wing display (BWD), 133 Brownian motion, 885 C C-3PO, 881 C4.5 decision tree, 223 C4.5 program, 223 Cajal, liii, lv, 149, 352, 603, 794, 891 Cajal, Santiago Ramón y, 98–99 CART, 223, 552 Case-based reasoning (CBR), 17, 19, 100, 461 and analogy, xlviii, lxxxiv, 99–101, 653 Catastrophe theory, 745 Categorial grammar, xcviii, 2, 94, 101–104, 163, 321, 327, 824 advantages of, 103 approaches to, 102 central issue in, 102 function application rules in, 102 styles of formalization in, 101 Categorization, xlvii, xlviii, cxvii, cxxii, 19, 78, 104–106, 118, 121, 135, 144, 177, 178, 269, 400, 403, 445, 461, 464, 528