Temperament : a psychological perspective

Chapter 1 The History and Understanding of the Concept of Temperament. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Temperament from a Historical Perspective. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Speculative Approach to Temperament . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The First Empirical Studies on Temperament . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Constitutional Typologies of Temperament . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Emotion-Oriented Understanding of Temperament . . . . . . . . . . . . . Temperament Understood as a Style of Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Biology-Oriented Definitions of Temperament . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Concluding Remarks Regarding the Understanding of Temperament ... Temperament as a Component of Personality or as a Concept Aspects in Which Temperament and Non-Trait-Oriented Personality The Concept of Temperament . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Temperament and Personality. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Synonymous with Personality. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Concepts Differ. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Temperament and the Big Five Factors of Personality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chapter 2 The Initiators of Contemporary Research on Temperament . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Eysenck’s Biological Theory of PEN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Roots of the PEN Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii 1 1 2 8 19 28 28 31 32 35 38 39 44 49 59 60 62 62 xiv Contents The Dimensions and Structure of Temperament . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 The Biological Background of PEN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 Assessment Procedures Used for Diagnosing PEN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 The Eysenckian Superfactors in Relation to Performance and Social Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 Critical Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 77 Roots of Teplov’s Approach to Studies on Nervous System The Concept of Temperament and Its Postulated Structure . . . . . . . . . . . 79 Studies on Properties of the Central Nervous System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 Methods Used for Assessing the CNS Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 Properties of CNS in Relation to Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 Critical Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 by Thomas and Chess . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 90 The Neo-Pavlovian Typology: Teplov and His School . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Properties in Man . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 The Interactional Theory of Temperament Developed Roots of the Interactional Theory of Temperament . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The NYLS as Source and Evidence for the Interactional Theory of Temperament Measures Applied by Thomas and Chess . . . . . . . . . . . . . Temperament . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 95 Temperament and Behavior Disorders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 Critical Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 Chapter 3 Current Theories of Temperament . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 Child-Oriented Theories of Temperament . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Buss and Plomin’s Behavior-Genetic Theory of Temperament . . . . . . . . 103 104 and Derryberry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 119 124 129 The Developmental Model of Temperament: Rothbart The Emotion-Centered Theory of Temperament Developed by Goldsmith and Campos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Kagan’s Inhibited and Uninhibited Temperaments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Adult-Oriented Theories of Temperament . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Neuropsychological Model of Temperament Developed by Gray . . . Mehrabian’s PAD (Pleasure-Arousability-Dominance) Temperament Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 by Zuckerman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 Systems Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 139 The Biological Theory of Sensation Seeking Developed Rusalov’s Theory of Temperament Based on a Functional Strelau’s Regulative Theory of Temperament . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162 Contents xv Chapter 4 Physiological and Biochemical Correlates of Temperament . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 The Structure, Physiology, and Biochemistry of the Nervous System as Related to Temperament Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 The Neuron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 The Autonomic Nervous System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 The Central Nervous System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 Final Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 Psychophysiological Correlates of Temperament . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 Physiological Correlates of Temperament Referring to Autonomic Arousal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 Physiological Correlates of Temperament Referring to Cortical Arousal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 Biochemical Correlates of Temperament . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223 Cortisol: The Hormone That Gained Highest Popularity in Temperament Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224 Temperament-Neurotransmiter Relationship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227 General Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233 Chapter 5 Behavior-Genetic Research on Temperament . . . . . . . . . . . 237 Theoretical Issues of Behavior Genetics as Related to Temperament Research in Humans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238 239 242 Heritability as a Measure of the Contribution of Genetic Factors to Individual Differences in Behavior Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . Basic Behavior-Genetic Methods Used in Temperament Studies . . . . . . Relationships between Genes and Environment and the Genetic Regulation of Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245 Behavior-Genetic Studies on Temperament: Selected Empirical Data . . . . Determination of Individual Differences in Temperament . . . . . . . . . . Most Often Explored in Behavior-Genetic Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 248 249 Heritability of Selected Temperament Traits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253 Environment to Individual Differences in Temperament . . . . . . . . . . . 262 From Quantitative Genetics to Molecular Genetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268 Final Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269 Studies on Animals as the First Step in Searching for the Genetic Extraversion and Neuroticism: The Two Temperament Traits Developmental Changes in the Contribution of Genes and xvi Contents Chapter 6 Assessment of Temperament: Diagnosis and Methodological Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273 274 274 of Temperament Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281 284 Temperament Questionnaires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286 287 297 305 314 315 320 327 Methods of Temperament Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Assessment of Temperament Based on Observational Data . . . . . . . . . . Psychophysical and Psychophysiological Indicators Interview as a Source of Information Regarding Temperament . . . . . . . . Questionnaire Approach to the Study of Temperament in Infants and Children . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Temperament Questionnaires for Adolescents and Adults . . . . . . . . . . . . Strategies for Constructing Temperament Inventories, and Traits Measured by These Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Selected Issues Related to Temperament Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Manifold Approach to Temperament Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Construct Validity of Temperament Inventories Based on Psychophysiological and Psychophysical Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . Temperament Assessment from a Cross-Cultural Perspective . . . . . . . . . Chapter 7 The Functional Significance of Temperament . . . . . . . . . . 335 The Contribution of Temperament to Child Behavior and Adjustment in Adverse Situations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336 336 340 343 345 351 361 362 The Concept of Difficult Temperament . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Temperament and Goodness of Fit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Difficult Temperament and Psychiatric Disorders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Difficult Temperament and Adjustment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Difficult Temperament in Clinical Samples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Temperament and Schooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353 Temperament as a Moderator of Stress Phenomena . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Understanding of Stress Phenomena . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Temperament and Stress: Hypothesized Relationships Temperament as a Moderator of Stress Consequences: 376 Final Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387 Appendix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391