From messengers to molecules : memories are made of these

Preface .................................................................................................. ix Abbreviations ...................................................................................... xxi Section 1. Ions and Ion Channels 1.1. Calcium.................................................................................................. 1 Miao-Kun Sun and Daniel L. Alkon Ca2+ Influx ............................................................................................. 2 Neurotransmitter Release ...................................................................... 7 Modulation of Channel Activity ............................................................ 8 Signal Transduction Cascades ............................................................... 9 Alzheimer’s Disease ............................................................................. 14 1.2. Potassium ............................................................................................. 20 Jeffrey Vernon and Karl Peter Giese How Can K+ Channels Contribute to Learning and Memory? ............ 22 Section 2. Principle Neurotransmitters 2.1. Glutamate Receptors ............................................................................ 39 Gernot Riedel, Jacques Micheau and Bettina Platt Glutamate Receptor Function in Learning and Memory Formation ....................................................................................... 43 2.2. γ-Amino-Butyric Acid (GABA)............................................................. 72 Claudio Castellano, Vincenzo Cestari and Alessandro Ciamei GABAergic Drugs and Memory Formation: Peripheral Administrations ............................................................................... 73 GABAergic Drugs and Memory: Genotype-Dependent Effects ........... 75 GABAergic Drugs and the State-Dependency Hypothesis ................... 76 GABAergic Drugs and Memory Formation: Administrations into Brain Structures ....................................................................... 77 Interaction with Other Systems ........................................................... 82 2.3. Acetylcholine: I. Muscarinic Receptors ................................................. 90 Giancarlo Pepeu and Maria Grazia Giovannini Muscarinic Receptors .......................................................................... 93 Which Cognitive Processes Depend on the Activation of Muscarinic Receptors? ................................................................. 98 Effects of Direct and Indirect Selective Muscarinic Receptor Agonists on Learning and Memory: Therapeutic Implications....... 103 2.4. Acetylcholine: II. Nicotinic Receptors ................................................ 113 Joyce Besheer and Rick A. Bevins Neuronal nAChRs ............................................................................. 113 Memory ............................................................................................ 115 Attention ........................................................................................... 117 Rewarding/Incentive Effects .............................................................. 118 Other Effects ..................................................................................... 120 2.5. Serotonin ........................................................................................... 125 Marie-Christine Buhot, Mathieu Wolff and Louis Segu Role of 5-HT in Memory: Global Strategies ...................................... 126 Serotonergic-Cholinergic Interactions ............................................... 128 5-HT Receptors in Memory Systems ................................................. 128 2.6. Dopamine .......................................................................................... 143 Jan P.C. de Bruin Functional Studies Using a Systemic Approach ................................. 145 Functional Studies Using a Central Approach ................................... 148 2.7. Adrenaline and Noradrenaline............................................................ 155 Marie E. Gibbs and Roger J. Summers Pharmacology of α- and β-Adrenoceptors in the Central Nervous System ............................................................................. 155 Factors Affecting Drug Action at Adrenoceptors ............................... 159 Memory Studies with Adrenoceptor Agonists and Antagonists in Rats ........................................................................................... 160 Memory Studies with Adrenoceptor Agonists and Antagonists in Chicks ....................................................................................... 163 Roles for Adrenoceptor Subtypes in the LPO .................................... 169 2.8. Histamine .......................................................................................... 174 Rüdiger U. Hasenöhrl and Joseph P. Huston The Histaminergic Neuron System ................................................... 174 The Role of the Tuberomammillary Nucleus Projection System in Neural Plasticity and Functional Recovery ................................ 176 The Role of the Histaminergic Neuronal System in the Control of Reinforcement ........................................................................... 178 The Role of the Histaminergic Neuronal System in the Control of Learning and Mnemonic Processes ............................................ 181 Tuberomammillary Modulation of Hippocampal Signal Transfer ..... 187 2.9. Adenosine and Purines ....................................................................... 196 Trevor W. Stone, M-R. Nikbakht and E. Martin O’Kane Origin of Adenosine in the Extracellular Fluid .................................. 196 Adenosine Receptors ......................................................................... 196 Adenosine and Learning .................................................................... 197 Adenosine and Synaptic Plasticity ...................................................... 199 Interactions between Adenosine and Cholinergic Neurotransmission ........................................................................ 201 Interactions between Purines and Glutamate Receptors ..................... 203 Other Receptor Interactions .............................................................. 205 The Effects of Ageing on Adenosine Receptors .................................. 210 Trophic Functions of Nucleosides ..................................................... 210 Nucleotides and Synaptic Plasticity ................................................... 211 Section 3. Neuromodulators 3.1. Cannabinoids ..................................................................................... 224 Lianne Robinson, Bettina Platt and Gernot Riedel Cannabinoid Receptors ..................................................................... 224 Cannabinoid Receptor Ligands ......................................................... 225 Cannabinoid Receptors Modulate Memory Formation ..................... 226 3.2. Opioids .............................................................................................. 246 Makoto Ukai, Ken Kanematsu, Tsutomu Kameyama and Takayoshi Mamiya Distribution of Opioid Peptides and Their Receptors in the Hippocampus ...................................................................... 246 Effects of Opioid Receptor Ligands on Long-Term Potentiation in Hippocampal Regions ............................................................... 249 Effects of Opioid Receptor Ligands on Learning and Memory in Hippocampal Regions ............................................................... 251 Effects of Opioid Receptor Ligands on Learning and Memory Tasks ........................................................................ 251 Ameliorating Effects of Opioid Receptor Ligands on Models of Learning and Memory Impairment ........................................... 251 3.3. Neuropeptides .................................................................................... 256 David De Wied and Gábor L. Kovács Posterior Pituitary Peptides (Vasopressin, Oxytocin) ......................... 256 ACTH/MSH and Opioid Peptides ................................................... 261 Hypophyseotropic Peptides (CRF, Somatostatin) .............................. 263 Brain-Gut Peptides (CCK, Neuropeptide Y, Galanin) ....................... 266 Substance P ....................................................................................... 270 Natriuretic Peptides, Angiotensin ...................................................... 272 Amyloid Peptides .............................................................................. 277 3.4. Nerve Growth Factors and Neurotrophins ......................................... 286 Catherine Brandner Neurotrophin Expression and Regulation of Neurogenesis during Development ..................................................................... 287 Neurotrophin Receptors .................................................................... 287 Nerve Growth Factor and the Basal Forebrain Cholinergic System ... 287 Behavioral Studies of NGF Administrations ...................................... 289 Discussion ......................................................................................... 295 3.5. Eph Receptors and Their Ephrin Ligands in Neural Plasticity ........... 300 Robert Gerlai The Promiscuous Family of Eph Receptors ....................................... 300 Function of Eph Receptors in the Normal Brain: Role in Plasticity and Memory .............................................................. 302 Mechanisms Mediating Eph Action: The First Working Hypotheses .................................................................................... 306 3.6. Corticosteroids ................................................................................... 314 Carmen Sandi Glucocorticoid Hormones and Receptors .......................................... 314 Role of Glucocorticoids on Memory Consolidation .......................... 317 Neural Mechanisms Involved in Glucocorticoid Actions on Memory Consolidation ............................................................ 321 Effects of Chronic Exposure to Elevated Glucocorticoid Levels on Cognitive and Neural Function ..................................... 324 Section 4. Second Messengers and Enzymes 4.1. Adenylyl Cyclases ............................................................................... 330 Nicole Mons and Jean-Louis Guillou Adenylyl Cyclases and Memory Formation in Invertebrates .............. 331 The Drosophila System ..................................................................... 332 A Specific Role for Mammalian Adenylyl Cyclases in Learning and Memory Processes: Heterogeneity of Mammalian Adenylyl Cyclases .......................................................................... 333 4.2. Phospholipases and Oxidases ............................................................. 349 Christian Hölscher Phospholipases .................................................................................. 350 Arachidonic Acid (ArA), a Second Messenger .................................... 351 Release of ArA ................................................................................... 352 Time Course of Release ..................................................................... 352 Targets of ArA ................................................................................... 352 ArA and Metabolites of ArA As Transmitters and ‘Retrograde Messengers’ in Synaptic Plasticity .................................................. 353 Oxygenases That Are of Importance in Memory Formation .............. 357 Cyclooxygenases ................................................................................ 358 The Timing of Memory Formation ................................................... 362 Defined Steps in Memory Formation ................................................ 362 A Potential Role for Defined Time Windows of Messenger Systems in Memory Formation ..................................................... 363 4.3. Protein Kinase A ................................................................................ 369 Monica R.M. Vianna and Ivan Izquierdo Short- and Long-Term Memory ........................................................ 370 One-Trial Avoidance ......................................................................... 372 The cAMP/PKA Signaling Pathway .................................................. 372 PKA Involvement in Long-Term Memory Formation ....................... 373 PKA Involvement in Short-Term Memory Formation ...................... 375 PKA Involvement in Memory Retrieval ............................................. 378 PKA Involvement in Extinction ........................................................ 379 4.4. Protein Kinase C ................................................................................ 383 Xavier Noguès, Alessia Pascale, Jacques Micheau and Fiorenzo Battaini Protein Kinase C: Who Is It? ............................................................. 384 PKC in Synaptic Plasticity ................................................................. 386 Evidence for the Involvement of PKC in Cognitive Processes ............ 389 PKC and Neuronal Pathologies Impairing Cognition........................ 395 Pharmacological Modulation of PKC: The Goal of Isoenzyme Selectivity ...................................................................................... 400 4.5. CaMKinase II..................................................................................... 411 Martín Cammarota and Jorge H. Medina CaMKII: Synaptic Plasticity and Memory Processing ........................ 412 Downstream Effectors of the CaMKII Cascade ................................. 416 CaMKIV: A New (and Important) Player in the Plasticity Team ...... 418 4.6. MAP Kinases...................................................................................... 425 Joel C. Selcher, Edwin J. Weeber and J. David Sweatt Hippocampal Involvement in Learning ............................................. 429 ERK in Hippocampal Synaptic Plasticity .......................................... 433 A Necessity for ERK Activation for Mammalian Learning ................. 435 Specific Contributions of ERK Isoforms to LTP and Learning .......... 440 Biochemical Attributes That Make ERK Suited for Memory Formation ..................................................................................... 442 4.7. Phosphatases ...................................................................................... 448 Pauleen C. Bennett and Kim T. Ng Phosphorylation in Information Storage Processes ............................. 458 Phosphatase Involvement in Invertebrate Memory Models ................ 462 Protein Phosphatases in Aplysia Learning and Memory ..................... 463 Phosphorylation in Vertebrate Memory Models ................................ 464 4.8. Nitric Oxide ....................................................................................... 480 Kiyofumi Yamada and Toshitaka Nabeshima Regulation of NO Synthesis in the Brain ........................................... 480 Role of NO in LTP and LTD ........................................................... 481 Role of NO in Memory Processes ...................................................... 483 Learning and Memory-Associated Changes in NO Production in the Brain ................................................................................... 487 Section 5. Transcription Factors, Genes and Proteins 5.1. CREB................................................................................................. 492 Paul W. Frankland and Sheena A. Josselyn Structure ........................................................................................... 493 Activation .......................................................................................... 493 CREB and Electrophysiological Studies of Long-Term Plasticity in Aplysia ........................................................................ 495 CREB and Memory in Drosophila ..................................................... 496 CREB and LTM in Mammals ........................................................... 496 Gaining Temporal and Spatial Control of CREB Function in Mammals .................................................................................. 497 5.2. Immediate-Early Genes ...................................................................... 506 Jeffrey Greenwood, Pauline Curtis, Barbara Logan, Wickliffe Abraham and Mike Dragunow Learning Activates IEGs .................................................................... 507 A Link between Cholinergic System and IEGs .................................. 507 IEGs and Their Relation to Stress ..................................................... 508 5.3. Protein Synthesis: I. Pharmacology .................................................... 514 Oliver Stork and Hans Welzl Asking about the ‘Where’ and ‘When’ of Learning-Related Protein Synthesis ........................................................................... 514 Inhibitors of Protein Synthesis ........................................................... 516 Effects of Protein Synthesis Inhibitors on Memory Formation .......... 519 Principle Findings and Future Perspectives in Protein Synthesis Inhibitor Research ......................................................................... 522 5.4. Protein Synthesis: II. New Proteins ................................................... 529 Radmila Mileusnic Present Time ..................................................................................... 533 Section 6. Morphological Changes in Synapses and Neurones 6.1. Learning-Induced Synaptogenesis and Structural Synaptic Remodeling ........................................................................................ 543 Yuri Geinisman, Robert W. Berry and Olga T. Ganeshina Patterns of Synaptogenesis Elicited by Behavioral Learning ............... 543 Specific Synaptogenesis Related to Learning-Induced Adult Neurogenesis ....................................................................... 547 Pattern of Structural Synaptic Remodeling Elicited by Behavioral Learning .................................................................. 553 Enlargement of Postsynaptic Densities following Learning: A Possible Morphological Correlate of the Conversion of Postsynaptically Silent Synapses into Functional Synapses ............. 556 6.2. Cell Adhesion Molecules .................................................................... 564 Ciaran M. Regan Is Net Synapse Formation a Correlate of Learning? ........................... 565 Do Cell Adhesion Molecules Have a Role in Learning? ..................... 566 Do Cell Adhesion Molecules Have a Temporal Role in Learning? ..... 567 Can Cell Adhesion Molecules Reveal Memory Pathway? ................... 569 What about Neurogenesis in Learning? ............................................. 572 Section 7. Learning about Memory by Studying Brain Dysfunction 7.1. Animal and Human Amnesia: The Cholinergic Hypothesis Revisited ............................................................................................ 580 Robert Jaffard and Aline Marighetto Identifying Memory Dysfunction ...................................................... 580 Acetylcholine and Memory: From a Key Neurotransmitter to the Functional Dynamics of Interactive Processes ...................... 580 Cholinergic Alterations Induced by Learning and Memory Testing .......................................................................................... 581 From Assessment to Alleviation of Age-Related Memory Impairments in Mice ..................................................................... 583 7.2. Aging and the Calcium Homeostasis .................................................. 591 Wendy W. Wu and John F. Disterhoft Altered Ca2+ Homeostasis in Aging .................................................... 592 Altered Ca2+ Homeostasis and Age-Related Learning Deficits ............ 594 Alterations in Ca2+-Mediated Plasticity in Aging: Implications for Learning ................................................................................... 594 Paradigms Used to Study Age-Related Learning Deficits ................... 594 Learning-Related Changes in Hippocampal CA1 Pyramidal Neurons—Postsynaptic Excitability Increases in Learning ............. 595 Mechanisms Underlying Aging-Related Enhancement in the sIAHP .................................................................................... 598 sIAHP As a Link Between Age-Related Changes in Ca2+ Homeostasis and Learning ............................................................. 600 Index .................................................................................................. 607