Introduction to environmental biophysics 2nd

Preface to the Second Edition v Preface to the First Edition ix List of Symbols xvii Chapter 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Microenvironments 3 1.2 Energy Exchange 3 1.3 Mass and Momentum Transport 4 1.4 Conservation of Energy and Mass 4 1.5 Continuity in the Biosphere 5 1.6 Models, Heterogeneity, and Scale 7 1.7 Applications 9 1.8 Units 9 References 13 Problems 13 Chapter 2 Temperature 15 2.1 Typical Behavior of Atmospheric and Soil Temperature 15 2.2 Random Temperature Variation 18 2.3 Modeling Vertical Variation in Air Temperature 20 2.4 Modeling Temporal Variation in Air Temperature 23 2.5 Soil Temperature Changes with Depth and Time 23 2.6 Temperature and Biological Development 26 2.7 Thermal Time 28 2.8 Calculating Thermal Time from Weather Data 30 2.9 Temperature Extremes and the Computation of Thermal Time 32 2.10 Normalization of Thermal Time 32 2.11 Thermal Time in Relation To Other Environmental Variables 33 References 34 Problems 35 xii Contents Chapter 3 Water Vapor and Other Gases 37 3.1 Specifying Gas Concentration 38 3.2 Water Vapor: Saturation Conditions 40 3.3 Condition of Partial Saturation 42 3.4 Spatial and Temporal Variation of Atmospheric Water V~oc 47 3.5 Estimating the Vapor Concentration in Air 49 References 50 Problems 50 Chapter 4 Liquid Water in Organisms and their Environment 53 4.1 Water Potential and Water Content 53 4.2 Water Potentials in Organisms and their Surroundings 58 4.3 Relation of Liquid- to Gas-Phase Water 58 References 61 Problems 61 Chapter 5 Wind 63 5.1 Characteristics of Atmospheric Turbulence 64 5.2 Wind as a Vector 65 5.3 Modeling the Variation in Wind Speed 66 5.4 Finding the Zero Plane Displacement and the Roughness Length 68 5.5 Wind Within Crop Canopies 72 References 74 Problems 75 Chapter6 Heat and Mass Transport 77 6.1 Molar Fluxes 78 6.2 Integration of the Transport Equations 79 6.3 Resistances and Conductances 79 6.4 Resistors and Conductors in Series 80 6.5 Resistors in Parallel 81 6.6 Calculation of Fluxes 81 Problems 85 Chapter 7 Conductances for Heat and Mass Transfer 87 7.1 Conductances for Molecular Diffusion 87 7.2 Molecular Diffusivities 88 7.3 Diffusive Conductance of the Integument 90 7.4 Turbulent Transport 93 7.5 Fetch and Buoyancy 96 7.6 Conductance of the Atmospheric Surface Layer 97 7.7 Conductances for Heat and Mass Transfer in Laminar Forced Convection 99 7.8 Cylinders, Spheres and Animal Shapes 102 7.9 Conductances in Free Convection 103 Contents xiii 7.10 Combined Forced and Free Convection 105 7.11 Conductance Ratios 105 7.12 Determining the Characteristic Dimension of an Object 106 7.13 Free Stream TUrbulence 108 Summary of Formulae for Conductance 108 References 110 Problems 110 Chapter 8 Heat Flow in the Soil 113 8.1 Heat Flow and Storage in Soil 113 8.2 Thermal Properties of Soils: Volumetric Heat Capacity 117 8.3 Thermal Properties of Soils: Thermal Conductivity 119 804 Thermal Diffusivity and Admittance of Soils 123 8.5 Heat Transfer from Animals to a Substrate 126 References 128 Problems 128 Chapter 9 Water Flow in Soil 129 9.1 The Hydraulic Conductivity 129 9.2 Infiltration of Water into Soil 131 9.3 Redistribution ofWater in Soil 133 904 Evaporation from the Soil Surface 136 9.5 Transpiration and Plant Water Uptake 139 9.6 The Water Balance 144 References 144 Problems 144 Chapter 10 Radiation Basics 147 10.1 The Electromagnetic Spectrum 148 10.2 Blackbody Radiation 149 10.3 Definitions 149 lOA The Cosine Law 156 10.5 Attenuation of Radiation 157 10.6 Spectral Distribution of Blackbody Radiation 159 10.7 Spectral Distribution of Solar and Thermal Radiation 160 10.8 Radiant Emittance 162 References 165 Problems 165 Chapter 11 Radiation Fluxes in Natural Environments 167 11.1 Sun Angles and Daylength 168 11.2 Estimating Direct and Diffuse Short-wave Irradiance 171 11.3 Solar Radiation under Clouds 173 11.4 Radiation Balance 175 11.5 Absorptivities for Thermal and Solar Radiation 176 xiv Contents 11.6 View Factors 178 References 183 Problems 184 Chapter 12 Animals and their Environment 185 12.1 The Energy Budget Concept 185 12.2 Metabolism 189 12.3 Latent Heat Exchange 190 12.4 Conduction of Heat in Animal Coats and Tissue 194 12.5 Qualitative Analysis of Animal Thermal response 197 12.6 Operative Temperature 198 12.7 Applications of the Energy Budget Equation 200 12.8 The Transient State 201 12.9 Complexities of Animal Energetics 202 12.10 Animals and Water 204 References 205 Problems 206 Chapter 13 Humans and their Environment 209 13.1 Area, Metabolic Rate, and Evaporation 209 13.2 Survival in Cold Environments 211 13.3 Wind Chill and Standard Operative Temperature 213 13.4 Survival in Hot Environments 215 13.5 The Humid Operative Temperature 219 13.6 Comfort 220 References 222 Problems 222 Chapter 14 Plants and Plant Communities 223 14.1 Leaf Temperature 224 14.2 Aerodynamic Temperature of Plant Canopies 229 14.3 Radiometric Temperature of Plant Canopies 230 14.4 Transpiration and the Leaf Energy Budget 231 14.5 Canopy Transpiration 233 14.6 Photosynthesis 235 14.7 Simple Assimilation Models 235 14.8 Biochemical Models for Assimilation 239 14.9 Control of Stomatal Conductance 241 14.10 Optimum Leaf Form 244 References 245 Problems 246 Chapter 15 The Light Environment of Plant Canopies 247 15.1 Leaf Area Index and Light Transmission Through Canopies 247 15.2 Detailed Models of Light Interception by Canopies 250 15.3 Transmission of Diffuse Radiation 254 Contents xv 15.4 Light Scattering in Canopies 255 15.5 Reflection of Light by Plant Canopies 255 15.6 Transmission of Radiation by Sparse Canopies- Soil Reflectance Effects 257 15.7 Daily Integration 258 15.8 Calculating the Flux Density of Radiation on Leaves in a Canopy 258 15.9 Calculating Canopy Assimilation from Leaf Assimilation 259 15.10 Remote Sensing of Canopy Cover and IPAR 264 15.11 Remote Sensing and Canopy Temperature 271 15.12 Canopy Reflectivity (Emissivity) versus Leaf Reflectivity (Emissivity) 273 15.13 Heterogeneous Canopies 273 15.14 Indirect Sensing of Canopy Architecture 275 References 276 Problems 277 Appendix 279 Index 283