Pesticide toxicology and internatioinal regulations

1 Pesticides: An Overview of Fundamentals 1 Bryan Ballantyne and Timothy C. Marrs Definition and introductory generalizations 1 Major historical features 2 Classification and nomenclature 3 Exposure to pesticides; routes, monitoring, and protection 5 Health issues 9 Regulation of pesticides 16 References 19 Part I Insecticides 2 Toxicology of Organochlorine Insecticides 27 Andrew G. Smith Overview 27 Lindane=hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH) 32 Cyclodiene and related insecticides 39 Toxaphene 45 DDT and its analogues 46 DDT 48 Mirex and chlordecone 59 Regulatory aspects 64 Summary 65 References 65 3 Anticholinesterase Insecticides 89 Charles M. Thompson and Rudy J. Richardson Introduction 89 AChE 90 Major classes of anti-AChE insecticides 95 Toxicological consequences of AChE inhibition 107 Therapy for cholinergic toxicity 108 Regulatory aspects of anti-AChE insecticides 110 Acknowledgements 117 References 118 4 Toxicology of Pyrethrins and Synthetic Pyrethroids 129 David E. Ray Usage and human exposure 129 Mechanisms of toxicity 131 Systemic poisoning 139 Pathology 144 Paraesthesia and local irritation 145 Developmental neurotoxicity 146 Reference values for synthetic pyrethroids 147 References 149 5 Toxicology of Miscellaneous Insecticides 159 Roland Solecki Introduction 159 Neuroactive insecticides 161 Insect growth regulators 174 Plant insecticides 180 Biochemical insecticides 185 References 186 Part II Fungicides, Herbicides and Growth Regulators 6 Toxicology of Fungicides 193 Bryan Ballantyne Introduction 193 Halogenated substituted monocyclic aromatics 196 Dithiocarbamate fungicides 217 Dithiocarbamates 217 Ethylene bisdithiocarbamates 225 Benzimidazole=thiabendazole fungicides 231 Chloroalkylthiodicarboximides 242 Azoles 248 Morpholines 261 Carboxanilides (oxathiins) 265 Organophosphates 268 Piperazines 271 Metallic fungicides 272 vi CONTENTS Miscellaneous 274 Aliphatic aldehydes 274 Thiocarbonates 278 Antibiotics 279 Cinnamic acid class 281 Appendix: Complete listing of fungicides by chemical classes 282 References 292 7 Toxicology of Herbicides 305 Timothy C. Marrs Herbicides 305 Inorganic herbicides 305 Bipyridylium herbicides 305 Phenoxy acid herbicides 320 Substituted anilines 327 Ureas and thioureas 328 Nitriles 329 Triazines and triazoles 329 Organic phosphorus herbicides 331 Defoliants and dessicants, and plant growth regulators 334 References 334 Part III Special Types of Pesticide 8 Microbial Pesticides 349 Ian C. Dewhurst Introduction 349 Regulatory approaches 351 Toxicity of particular organisms 353 References 361 9 Biocides 365 Bryan Ballantyne and Susan L. Jordan Introduction 365 Chemistry of biocides 367 2,2-Dibromo-3-nitrilopropionamide (DBNPA) 368 Methylenebisthiocyanate (MBT) 371 Quarternary ammonium compounds (quats) 372 2-Bromo-2-nitropropane-1,3-diol (bronopol; BNP) 375 iso-Thiazolones 377 Tetra-(hydroxymethyl)-phosphonium sulphate (THPS) 384 Peracetic acid (PAA) 385 Glutaraldehyde (GA) 388 References 401 CONTENTS vii Part IV Residues 10 Variability of Residues in Unprocessed Food Items and its Impact on Consumer Risk Assessment 413 Caroline A. Harris and Alan R. C. Hill Variability of pesticide residues 413 Maximum residue limits 414 Minor crops 415 Derivation of MRLs 415 Discovery of residue variability in UK crops 416 Further studies on variability 417 Implications of variability and derivation of the variability factor 418 Calculation of acute dietary exposure 419 Refinement of the variability factor 422 Consumption data in assessing acute dietary exposure 423 Toxicology in the derivation of an acute reference dose 424 Calculating consumer exposure 425 The impact on availability of pesticides 426 References 426 Part V Human Aspects 11 Occupational Aspects of Pesticide Toxicity in Humans 431 Angelo Moretto Occurrence of occupational pesticide poisoning 431 Acceptable occupational exposure levels (AOELs) and estimate of levels of pesticide exposure 432 Generalities on biological monitoring of pesticide exposure 435 Toxicological effects of occupational exposure to pesticides 436 References 458 12 Treatment of Pesticide Poisoning 473 Gregory P. Wedin and Blaine E. Benson Introduction 473 General treatment guidelines 473 Insecticides 476 Herbicides 481 Rodenticides 486 References 492 viii CONTENTS Part VI Regulation 13 Regulation of Pesticides and Biocides in the European Union 501 Deborah J. Hussey and Graham M. Bell Background 501 Data requirements 504 Evaluation and decision-making process 505 Progress with implementation of the Directives 508 Classification and labelling 509 Maximum residue levels (MRLs) 510 Harmonization 511 References 511 14 Regulation under NAFTA 513 Cheryl E. A. Chaffey and Virginia A. Dobozy History and legislation 513 NAFTA and harmonizing the approach to pesticide regulation 515 Data requirements 516 Hazard identification 517 Dietary risk assessment 519 Occupational=bystander risk assessment 521 Science policy issues raised by the FQPA 523 References 524 15 The Regulatory System in Japan 527 Kannosuke Fujimori Introduction 527 Safety assessment of pesticides and establishment of the ADI 528 Establishment of maximum pesticide residue levels (MRLs) 530 Data requirements for registration of pesticides in Japan 531 Conclusion 533 References 534