Assessing adolescent and adult intelligence,3 edition.

PART I Introduction to the Assessment of Adolescent and Adult Intelligence CHAPTER 1 IQ Tests: Their History, Use, Validity, and Intelligent Interpretation 1 Outline of the Book 2 Wechsler’s Scales 3 Clinical Relevance of Theory 3 A Short History of IQ Tests 3 The Binet-Simon Scales 4 Terman’s Stanford-Binet 4 The World War I Tests 5 Wechsler’s Creativity 6 Surveys of Test Usage for Adults 7 Has Test Use Changed over the Years? 8 Test Usage of 1,500 Psychologists and Neuropsychologists 8 How Frequently Are Tests Used? 9 Administration Time and Implications for Reimbursement 10 For What Purposes Are Adults Given Intelligence Tests? 10 Conclusions 10 Validity of the IQ Construct for Adolescents and Adults 11 Prediction of Academic Achievement 12 Relationship of IQ to Education 13 IQ and Occupation 14 Prediction of Job Performance 16 The Intelligent Testing Philosophy 18 IQ Tasks Measure What the Individual Has Learned 19 IQ Tasks Are Samples of Behavior and Are Not Exhaustive 19 C O N T E N T S vi CONTENTS IQ Tasks Like the WAIS-III, KAIT, and WJ III Assess Mental Functioning under Fixed Experimental Conditions 20 IQ Tasks are Optimally Useful When They Are Interpreted from an Information-Processing Model 20 Hypotheses Generated from IQ Test Profiles Should Be Supported with Data from Multiple Sources 21 Tying Together the Tenets of Intelligent Testing 22 Summary 22 CHAPTER 2 Heritability and Malleability of IQ and Attacks on the IQ Construct 24 The Heritability and Malleability of IQ 24 Heritability 24 Maternal Environment 33 Overview 35 Malleability 36 The Flynn Effect 37 The Abecedarian Project 42 Overview of Malleability of IQ 45 Attacks on the IQ Construct 46 Lezak’s Eulogy 46 The Learning Disabilities Challenge 53 Summary 59 CHAPTER 3 From the Wechsler-Bellevue I to the WAIS-III 61 Selection of the Subtests 62 Verbal Scale 62 Performance Scale 66 Item Content Changes from the W-B I to the WAIS to the WAIS-R and to the WAIS-III 69 Reliability Comparisons of the W-B I, WAIS, WAIS-R, and WAIS-III 72 Standardization of the W-B I, WAIS, WAIS-R, and WAIS-III 74 Comparison of the Construct Validity of the W-B I, WAIS, WAIS-R, and WAIS-III 76 Internal Consistency 76 Factor Analysis 78 Developmental Trends 80 Problems with Adolescent Data 82 Clinical Implications of the WAIS-III Norms at Ages 16–19 84 Overview of Developmental Trends 84 Correlations between the W-B I and WAIS, WAIS and WAIS-R, and the WAIS-R and WAIS-III 84 CONTENTS vii Relationship of the W-B I and WAIS 85 Relationship of the WAIS to WAIS-R 85 Relationship of the WAIS-R to WAIS-III 87 Comparison of Systems for Classifying Intelligence on the W-B I, WAIS, and WAIS-III 87 Comparison of IQs Yielded by the WAIS-R and WAIS-III 89 Practical Implications of WAIS-R/WAIS-III IQ Differences 90 Generalization from the W-B I, WAIS, and WAIS-R to the WAIS-III 91 Studies at Ages 16–19 Years 91 Studies Focusing on Picture Completion, Picture Arrangement, or Object Assembly 91 Factor Analysis Studies 92 Short Form Studies 92 Correlational Studies 93 Group versus Individual Interpretation 93 Conclusions 93 Summary 94 PART II Individual Differences on Age, Socioeconomic Status, and Other Key Variables CHAPTER 4 Individual Differences for Adolescents and Adults on Gender, Ethnicity, Urban–Rural Residence, and Socioeconomic Status 96 Gender Differences 96 Global Scales 96 Gender Differences on Separate Subtests 98 Clinical Implications of Gender Differences on Mental Tasks 100 Ethnic Differences in IQ 101 Differences between Caucasians and African Americans 101 Differences between Caucasians and Hispanics 106 Urban–Rural Residence Differences 109 Generational Changes in Urban–Rural Differences 109 Residence Differences on the WAIS-R Subtests 110 Occupational Differences 111 Best Estimate of IQ Differences for Adults in Different Occupations 111 IQ Variability within Occupational Groups 113 Occupational Status and Canonical Factors 115 Educational Attainment 115 viii CONTENTS WAIS-III Mean Scores Earned by Adults Differing in Educational Attainment 115 WAIS-III Correlations with Educational Attainment 117 Relationship of Intelligence to Education on the Kaufman Tests 120 Clinical Implications of Educational Data 123 Summary 124 CHAPTER 5 Age and Intelligence across the Adult Life Span 127 Does IQ Decline with Advancing Age? A Cross-Sectional Approach 128 Cross-Sectional Investigations of Wechsler’s Adult Scales 129 Cross-Sectional Investigations of Kaufman and Kaufman’s Adult Tests 150 Overview of Cross-Sectional Investigations 159 Cautions Associated with Cross-Sectional Investigations 161 Does IQ Decline with Advancing Age? A Longitudinal Approach 163 Problems in Investigating Aging Longitudinally 163 Two Groundbreaking Longitudinal Investigations of IQ and Aging 167 Kaufman’s (1990, 2001) Longitudinal Investigations of Wechsler’s Adult Scales Using Independent Samples 171 Interpretation of the Aging Patterns for V-IQ versus P-IQ: Speed or Fluid/Crystallized Ability? 180 Age-Related Declines on Untimed Tasks such as Matrix Reasoning 181 Age-Related Changes on Wechsler’s Arithmetic, Picture Completion, and Picture Arrangement Subtests 181 Data from the Bonn Longitudinal Study 182 Speed versus Cognitive Ability on Digit Symbol 182 Creative Works 182 Integration of Speed, Fluid Ability, and Other Factors 183 Can Cognitive Decline Be Slowed Down? 187 Summary 189 PART III Integration and Application of WAIS-III Research CHAPTER 6 Research on Administration, Scoring, and Relationships between Wechsler Scales 192 Administration and Scoring 192 Administration Time 192 Administration Errors 197 CONTENTS ix The Nature and Frequency of Administration Errors 197 Scoring Errors 198 Implications for Administering and Scoring the WAIS-III 202 WAIS-III Stability 202 WAIS-III Test-Retest Reliability and Practice Effects 202 Alternate Forms Reliability and Stability: WAIS-III versus WISC-III 209 Summary 216 CHAPTER 7 Factor Analysis of the WAIS-III 218 The WAIS-III as a One-Factor Test 218 The WAIS-III as a Two-Factor Test 220 The WAIS-III as a Three-Factor Test 222 The WAIS-III as a Four-Factor Test 223 How Many Factors Underlie the WAIS-III? 224 Are There Two, Three, or Four WAIS-III Factors? 225 Differences in WAIS-III Factor Structure Due to Ethnicity 227 Age Differences in the WAIS-III Factor Structure 227 Comparison of WAIS-III and WAIS-R Factors 232 Comparison of WAIS-III and WISC-III Factors 232 The General Factor (g) 234 Subtest Specificity 235 Definition of Subtest Specificity 236 Subtest Specificity of WAIS-III Subtests 236 Evaluation of the WAIS-III 237 Groth-Marnet, Gallagher, Hale, and Kaplan (2000) 237 Kaufman and Lichtenberger (1999) 242 Sattler and Ryan (1999) 242 Summary 243 CHAPTER 8 Verbal–Performance IQ Discrepancies: A Neuropsychological Approach 244 V–P Discrepancies and Brain Damage 244 Right- versus Left-Brain Lesions 245 Wechsler-Bellevue Studies 251 WAIS Studies 251 Overlapping Samples of Patients 252 WAIS-R Studies 252 Comparison of Results for Wechsler-Bellevue versus WAIS versus WAIS-R 252 Todd, Coolidge, and Satz’s Large-Scale Study with the WAIS 253 x CONTENTS Smith’s Large-Scale Investigations Using the Wechsler-Bellevue 253 Bilateral Brain Damage 254 General Conclusions regarding Studies of Brain Damage 257 The Nature of Brain Damage 258 Lesions Caused by Stroke, Head Injury, and Tumors 259 Temporal Lobe Epilepsy 263 Temporal Lobe versus Parietal Lobe Lesions 266 Frontal Lobe Lesions 266 Frontal versus Posterior Lesions 266 Acute versus Chronic Lesions 267 Fitzhugh et al.’s Study 267 Aggregated Data from Several Samples 268 Correlational Studies 269 Subtest Patterns for Left- and Right-Lesion Patients 269 Mean Scaled Scores for Patients with Focal Brain Damage 269 Discrimination between Right- and Left-Lesion Patients 270 Hemispheric Functioning: Process versus Content 274 Should V–P Discrepancies Be Used for Assessing Brain Damage? 275 Gender of Patients with Lateralized Lesions 276 Lansdell’s Initial Observations 276 McGlone’s Research 277 Well-Controlled Investigations 278 Inglis and Lawson’s Study of Gender Differences 278 Turkheimer et al.’s Study of Gender Differences 278 Inglis and Lawson’s Meta-Analysis of Gender Difference Studies 279 Bornstein and Matarazzo’s Review of Gender Difference Studies 279 Snow, Freedman, and Ford’s Review of Gender Differences 280 Turkheimer and Farace’s Meta-Analysis of Gender Difference Studies 281 Research Issues in the Investigation of Gender Differences 283 Aggregated Data from Gender Difference Studies 283 Proposed Explanations of the Interaction with Gender 284 Summary of Evaluation of Hypotheses for Gender Differences in Lesioned Patients 292 Ethnicity of Patients with Lateralized Lesions 293 Munder’s Careful Investigation of V–P Differences for Caucasians and African Americans 293 Subtest Patterns for Brain-Damaged Males by Race 294 Age of Patient Samples 296 Brain Damage in Children and in Adults 296 Empirical Analysis with Samples of Adolescents and Adults 297 Educational Level of Patient Samples 297 CONTENTS xi Research Implications of Base-Rate Education Data 299 Education Level and V–P for Brain-Damaged Samples 300 Education as a Variable for Normal versus Brain-Damaged People 300 Clinical Issues in the Interpretation of a Patient’s V-P Difference 302 Individual versus Group Data 303 Emotional Disturbance and Diffuse Brain Injury 304 Emotional Disturbance and Lateralized Lesions 304 V–P Interpretation in the Context of Patients’ Behaviors 307 Illustrative Case Report 308 Walt H., Age 21, Head Injury 308 Summary 314 CHAPTER 9 Verbal–Performance IQ Discrepancies: A Clinical Approach 317 Variables Believed to Be Correlates of High Performance IQ 317 Learning Disabilities 318 Delinquency and Psychopathic Behavior 327 Bilingualism 330 Autism 332 Mental Retardation 334 Overview of Variables Believed to Be Correlates of High Performance IQ 337 Variables Believed to Be Correlates of High Verbal IQ 337 Psychiatric Disorders 338 Alcohol Abuse 340 Motor Coordination Problems 341 Alzheimer’s-Type Dementia 344 High Average and Gifted Intellectual Functioning (Full Scale IQ of 110+) 350 Overview of Variables Believed to Be Correlates of High Verbal IQ 353 When V–P IQ Discrepancies Are Meaningless 354 IQs Are Not Unitary Constructs 354 Verbal Compensation for Performance Deficit 355 Effects of Retesting 356 Illustrative Case Reports 357 Chester P., Age 17, Possible Autism 357 Robert N., Age 36, Mild Retardation 362 Summary 366 xii CONTENTS PART IV Interpretation of the WAIS-III Profile: IQs, Factor Indexes, and Subtest Scaled Scores CHAPTER 10 Profile Interpretation: What the Subtests Measure 369 Ways of Grouping WAIS-III Subtests 369 Factor Analysis 370 Bannatyne’s Categories 370 Horn’s Modified Fluid–Crystallized Model 371 Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC) Theory 372 Baltes’s Life Span Two-Component Model 373 Osgood’s Psycholinguistic Approach and the Information-Processing Approach 374 Rapaport’s Pioneering Clinical Model 376 Dean’s Individual Ability Profile 377 Guilford’s Structure-of-Intellect Model 380 Abilities Measured by the 14 WAIS-III Subtests 382 Sources and Methods for Analyzing Each Subtest 382 Vocabulary 384 Similarities 385 Arithmetic 387 Digit Span 389 Information 391 Comprehension 393 Letter-Number Sequencing 395 Picture Completion 397 Digit Symbol-Coding 399 Block Design 401 Matrix Reasoning 403 Picture Arrangement 405 Symbol Search 407 Object Assembly 408 Summary 410 CHAPTER 11 WAIS-III Profile Interpretation: Steps 1–7 412 Considerations about Profile Interpretation 412 Considerations for Applying the Interpretive Steps when Only 11 Subtests Were Administered 413 Step 1: Interpret the Full Scale IQ 414 The Role of Full Scale IQ in Profile Interpretation 415 Step 2: Are the Verbal IQ versus the Performance IQ (or the Verbal Comprehension Index versus the Perceptual Organization Index) Significantly Different? 415 CONTENTS xiii Step 3: Are the Verbal IQ versus the Performance IQ (or the Verbal Comprehension Index versus the Perceptual Organization Index) Differences Abnormally Large? 417 Step 4: Is the V-IQ versus P-IQ Discrepancy Interpretable? 421 Step 5: Is VCI versus POI Difference Interpretable? 426 Step 6: Determine whether the Working Memory and Processing Speed Indexes Are Interpretable 428 Step 7: Interpret the Global Verbal and Nonverbal Dimensions, as well as the Small Factors, if They Were Found to Be Interpretable 428 General Interpretation of WAIS-III Indexes 430 Verbal Comprehension Index 430 Perceptual Organization Index 430 Working Memory Factor 431 Processing Speed Factor 433 Horn’s and Bannatyne’s Systems for Interpreting Global Verbal, Nonverbal, Working Memory, and Processing Speed Dimensions 434 Assessment of Verbal Skills by the Two Approaches 435 Assessment of Nonverbal Skills by the Two Approaches 435 Assessment of Additional Skills by the Two Approaches 435 Computing Standard Scores for the Bannatyne Categories and Horn Groupings 436 Reliability of Bannatyne Categories and Horn Groupings 437 Determining Strengths and Weaknesses within Each System 437 Strengths and Weaknesses within a Cluster 440 Selecting a System 443 Characteristic Profiles in Unique Populations 445 Summary 445 CHAPTER 12 WAIS-III Profile Interpretation: Steps 8 and 9 447 Generating WAIS-III Hypotheses 447 The Nine-Step Process 448 Step 8: Interpret Significant Strengths and Weaknesses of the Subtest Profile 448 Illustration of Step 8: Ryan N. 451 Step 9: Generating Hypotheses about the Fluctuations in the WAIS-III Profile 451 Basic Tenets of the Philosophy of Hypothesis Generation 453 Introduction to WAIS-III Subtest Interpretive Tables 455 Reliability Coefficients of Shared Abilities 455 xiv CONTENTS How to Use Information about Shared Abilities 455 Guideline 1 459 Guideline 2 459 Guideline 3 459 Guideline 4 476 Guideline 5 479 Summary of Sequential Approach to WAIS-III Interpretation 479 A Simultaneous Approach to Hypothesis Generation 479 Common Configurations of the WAIS-III Verbal Scale 481 Common Configurations of the WAIS-III Performance Scale 486 Configurations of Both Scales 492 Illustrative Case Reports 496 Nicole H., Age 34, Learning Problem 496 Aimée L., Age 26, Memory Concerns 501 Lauren J., Age 57, Decline in Job Performance 507 Summary 515 WAIS–III Interpretive Worksheet 517 PART V Additional Measures of Adolescent and Adult IQ CHAPTER 13 Kaufman Adolescent and Adult Intelligence Test (KAIT) 522 KAIT Theory 522 Horn-Cattell Theory in the KAIT 522 The Theories of Luria and Piaget in the KAIT 523 Composition of the KAIT 523 Other Tests and the KAIT 524 KAIT and the Wechsler Scales 524 KAIT and WJ-III 525 Types of Scores on the KAIT 525 KAIT’s Standardization and Psychometric Properties 525 KAIT Interpretation 527 Step 1: Interpret the KAIT Composite IQ 527 Step 2: Examine the KAIT Crystallized IQ versus the Fluid IQ 528 Step 3: Is the KAIT Crystallized IQ versus Fluid IQ Difference Abnormal? 529 Step 4: Determine if the Crystallized and Fluid IQs Are Interpretable 529 Step 5: Interpret the Meaning of the Crystallized and Fluid Scales 530 Step 6: Interpret KAIT Strengths and Weaknesses 531 CONTENTS xv Step 7: Generate Hypotheses about Fluctuations in the KAIT Profile 533 Alternative KAIT Subtest Groupings 539 KAIT Memory Comparisons 540 KAIT Research on Clinical Profiles 541 Assessment of Learning Disabilities 541 Assessment of Alzheimer’s-Type Dementia 543 Depression and Pseudodementia 545 Personality and Interests as They Pertain to Career Choices 547 KAIT’s Construct Validity for African Americans and Hispanics 549 KAIT Case Study 550 Jeff H., Age 17, Possible Learning Disability 550 Summary 560 CHAPTER 14 Woodcock-Johnson Battery—Third Edition (WJ III) 561 Kevin S. McGrew, Richard Woodcock, and Laurie Ford History and Evolution of the WJ III 561 Original Woodcock-Johnson (WJ) 561 Woodcock-Johnson—Revised (WJ-R) 562 Theoretical Foundations of the WJ III 563 The Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC) Theory of Cognitive Abilities 563 Use of the CHC Theory as the WJ III Design Blueprint 566 Description and Organization of the WJ III Tests and Clusters 570 Organization 570 The Cognitive Battery 571 The Achievement Battery 572 Interpretive Features of the WJ III 577 Types of Scores 578 Types of Profiles 579 Clinical and Selected Special Purpose Clusters 579 The Cognitive and Achievement Performance Models 581 Psychometric Characteristics 582 Norms 582 Reliability 583 Validity 584 Special Applications and Use with Special Populations 600 Assessment of Learning Disabilities 600 General Intellectual Ability/Achievement Discrepancy Model 600 Predicted Achievement–Achievement Discrepancy Model 602 Intra-Ability Discrepancy Model 603 Preliminary Research on Adult LD Identification with the WJ III 604 Neuropsychological Applications 607 xvi CONTENTS CHC Abilities across the Life Span 613 CHC Cross-Battery Applications 624 Summary 627 CHAPTER 15 Brief Tests of Intelligence and Related Abilities 629 Brief History of Brief Assessment 629 The Terman-Merrill Innovation 629 The Role of the Slosson, Shipley-Hartford, and Other Early Brief Tests 630 Silverstein’s Contributions to Wechsler Short Forms 631 Trends in Short-Form Development for WAIS and Its Successors 632 The Future of Short Forms 633 Let’s Stop Developing and Using Short Forms of Long Tests 633 The Normative Issue, Part I: Thompson’s Key Research 634 The Normative Issue, Part II: The Satz-Mogel Approach 635 The Statistical Issue: Correlated Error Variance 637 Appropriateness of the New Brief Tests for African Americans and Hispanics 638 The Seven-Subtest WAIS-III 640 When to Administer Brief Tests 640 Three Well-Normed Recent Brief Tests of Verbal and Nonverbal Intelligence 641 Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence (WASI) 641 Kaufman Brief Intelligence Test (K-BIT) 645 Wide Range Intelligence Test (WRIT) 647 Brief Tests of Either Nonverbal or Verbal Ability 650 Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test—Third Edition (PPVT-III) 650 General Abilities Measure for Adults (GAMA) 652 Matrix Analogies Test (MAT) 654 Brief Tests for Specialized Abilities 655 Kaufman Short Neuropsychological Assessment Procedure (K-SNAP) 655 Kaufman Functional Academic Skills Test (K-FAST) 657 Summary 660 APPENDIX A Alternative Approach to Interpreting the WAIS-III: Applying the Theory-Based Flanagan-Kaufman Interpretive Method for the WISC-IV 663 APPENDIX B WAIS-III Interpretive Worksheet 690 CONTENTS xvii APPENDIX C Norm Tables for Computing Standard Scores on the General Ability Index (GAI) and the Clinical Clusters 698 APPENDIX D Watkins and Canivez’s Critique of the Kaufman- Lichtenberger Interpretive System and Articulation of a New Theory-Based Approach to Profile Interpretation 708 References 718 Name Index 776 Subject Index 787