Principles and practice of geriatric psychiatry

List of Contributors xi Preface xix Preface to First Edition xxi PART A HISTORICAL BACKGROUND 1 1 A Conceptual History in the Nineteenth Century 3 G. E. Berrios 2 Scope and Development in the Twentieth Century 7 E. W. Busse 3 The Development in Britain 9 Tom Arie 4a The Development in the USA, 1600–1900 13 W. A. Achenbaum, C. Cederquist, V. Kahl and K. Rosenberg 4b In the Beginning 15 The Late F. Post PART B NORMAL AGEING 17 B1 Theories of Ageing 5 General Theories of Aging 19 E. W. Busse BII Brain Ageing 6 Structural Changes in the Aging Brain 23 G. Mazeika and P. M. Doraiswamy 7 Anatomy of the Ageing Brain 25 J. T. Campbell III and C. E. Coffey 8 Quantitative Structural Changes in the Ageing Brain 45 Bente Pakkenberg, Lisbeth Regeur and Hans Jørgen G. Gundersen Potential Regeneration of the Ageing Brain 47 S. B. Dunnett Hippocampal Changes and Memory Impairment in Normal People 49 J. T. O’Brien 9 Neuroendocrinology of Ageing 51 R. A. Burns and M. T. Abou-Saleh 10 Neurophysiology of Ageing as Reflected by Electroencephalogram (EEG) and Event-related Potentials (ERPs) 57 D. H. R. Blackwood, W. J. Muir and H. Forstl 11 Pharmacokinetic and Pharmacodynamic Considerations in Old Age Psychopharmacology 61 F. Schifano BIII Psychology of Ageing 12 Normal Ageing—A Problematical Concept 65 D. B. Bromley Cohort Studies 68 P. Rabbitt 13 Chronological and Functional Ageing 71 J. M. Guralnik and D. Melzer Health Expectancy: Monitoring Changes in Population Health 74 C. Jagger 14 Life Satisfaction 75 L. K. George BIV Sociology of Ageing 15 The Normal Aged among Community-dwelling Elders in the UK 79 C. Victor Do Life Events Seem Less Stressful to the Old? 82 A. D. M. Davies Support Networks 83 G. C. Wenger 16 World Statistical Trends and Prospects 87 G. C. Myers Demography of the Old: Implications of Recent Trends 90 E. Grundy PART C ABNORMAL AGEING 93 17 The Influence of Social Factors on Mental Health 95 D. Mechanic and D. D. McAlpine 18 The Natural History of Psychiatric Disorders: Early-onset Disease in Late Life and Late-onset Illness 99 J. Hays 19 Mortality and Mental Disorders 103 M. E. Dewey Principles and Practice of Geriatric Psychiatry. Editors: Professor John R. M. Copeland, Dr Mohammed T. Abou-Saleh and Professor Dan G. Blazer Copyright & 2002 John Wiley & Sons Ltd Print ISBN 0-471-98197-4 Online ISBN 0-470-84641-0 20 Long-term Outcome Studies of Psychiatric Disorders: Methodological Issues and Practical Approaches to Follow-up 105 A. Stueve, J. Toner and A. V. Quismorio PART D DIAGNOSIS AND ASSESSMENT 109 DI Epidemiology, Diagnosis and Nosology 21 The Importance of Multidimensional Assessment in Clinical Practice 111 M. R. Eastwood and A. Desai 22 Classification of Dementia and Other Organic Conditions in ICD-10 113 A. Jablensky and J. E. Cooper 23 Psychiatric Diagnosis and Old Age: New Perspectives for ‘‘DSM-IV-TR’’ and Beyond 117 E. D. Caine DII Clinical Assessment 24 History and Mental Status Examination 123 H. N. Richards and G. J. Maletta 25 The Physician’s Role 127 L. Young DIII Standardized Methods and Rating Scales 26 Needs and Problems 133 B. J. Gurland 27 Non-computerized Assessment Procedures: Fundamental Assessment Issues 137 P. Logue Short Assessment Scales Mini-Mental State Examination 140 J. Cockrell and M. Folstein IQCODE: Informant Interviews 141 A. F. Jorm Staging Dementia 142 B. Reisberg, G. Gandrota, A. Zaidi and S. H. Ferris Psychogeriatric Assessment Scales 146 A. F. Jorm 28 Computer Methods of Assessment of Cognitive Function 147 T. W. Robbins and B. J. Sahakian 29 The Assessment of Depressive States 153 T. R. Thompson and W. M. McDonald The Geriatric Depression Scale: Its Development and Recent Application 157 R. O’Hara and J. A. Yesavage Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale: Use among Older Adults 158 D. G. Blazer 30 The Development of the EURO-D Scale 159 M. Prince 31 Interviews Aimed at Differential Psychiatric Diagnosis GMS–HAS–AGECAT Package 161 J. R. M. Copeland CAMDEX 162 D. W. O’Connor 32 Assessment of Daily Living 165 K. H. Asberg 33 Rating Scales Designed for Nurses and Other Workers 169 K. C. M. Wilson, B. Green and P. Mottram 34 Comprehensive Interviews OARS Methodology 173 G. G. Fillenbaum The Comprehensive Assessment and Referral Evaluation (CARE): An Approach to Evaluating Potential for Achieving Quality of Life 174 B. Gurland and S. Katz PART E ORGANIC DISORDERS 177 EI Delirium 35 Delirium—An Overview 179 A. F. Fairburn Delirium in Institutions 182 B. Kamholz and C. Colenda Prognosis of Delirium 183 A. Treloar EII Dementia 36 Nosology of Dementia 185 I. Skoog and J. R. M. Copeland Cross-national Inter-rater Reliability of Dementia Diagnosis 189 D. W. O’Connor 37 Early Detection 191 S. Henderson 38 Dementia Epidemiology: Prevalence and Incidence 195 A. F. Jorm 39 Case-control Studies 199 S. Henderson Results from EURODEM Collaboration on the Incidence of Dementia 200 L. J. Launer, for the EURODEM Incidence Research Group MRC/DoH Cognitive Function and Ageing Study 202 J. Nickson, C. F. M. McCracken and C. Brayne, on behalf of MRC CFAS 40 The Epidemiology of Alzheimer’s Disease: An Update 205 L. J. Launer The Lundby Study, 1947–1997 208 P. Nettelbladt, O. Hagnell, L. O¨ jesjo¨, L. Otterbeck, C. Mattisson, M. Bogren, E. Hofvendahl and P. Tora¨ker vi CONTENTS Nutritional Factors in Dementia 210 D. N. Anderson and M. T. Abou-Saleh EIII Alzheimer’s Disease 41 The Genetics of Alzheimer’s Disease 213 B. L. Plassman and J. C. S. Breitner The Role of Presenilins in Alzheimer’s Disease 217 D. M. A. Mann Apolipoprotein-E (Apo-E) 218 D. G. Blazer Down’s Syndrome and Alzheimer’s Disease: Update 219 D. W. K. Kay and B. Moore International Criteria for Alzheimer’s Disease and Their Problems—ICD-10, DSM-IV and NINCS–ADRDA 221 K. Rockwood 42 The Neuropathology of Alzheimer’s Disease 223 D. M. A. Mann Oxford Project to Investigate Memory and Ageing (OPTIMA): A Longitudinal Clinicopathological Study of Dementia and Normal Ageing 227 A. D. Smith Consortium to Establish a Registry for Alzheimer’s Disease (CERAD) 228 G. G. Fillenbaum and A. Heyman 43 Neurotransmitter Changes in Alzheimer’s Disease: Relationships to Symptoms and Neuropathology 229 P. T. Francis and E. K. Perry 44 Antemortem Markers 233 S. J. Van Rensberg, F. C. V. Potocnik and D. J. Stein 45 Clinical Features of Senile Dementia and Alzheimer’s Disease 237 B. Pitt 46 Assessment and Management of Behavioural and Psychological Symptoms of Dementia (BPSD) 241 R. McShane and N. Gormley Eating Disorders in Alzheimer’s Disease 245 P. E. Cullen and C. Ballard EIV Vascular Dementia 47 Pathology of Vascular Dementia 247 J. M. MacKenzie International Criteria for Vascular Dementia and Their Problems: ICD-10, DSM-IV, ADDTC and NINDS–AIREN 249 J. V. Bowler and V. Hachinski 48 Vascular Dementia 251 P. Humphrey Vascular Dementia Subgroups: Multi-infarct Dementia and Subcortical White Matter Dementia 255 I. Skoog The Role of Blood Pressure in Dementia 256 I. Skoog EV Other Dementias 49 Neuropathology: Other Dementias 259 J. M. MacKenzie 50a Dementia and Parkinson’s Disease 265 R. B. Godwin-Austen Clinical Criteria for Dementia with Lewy Bodies 268 I. G. McKeith 50b Subcortical Dementia 269 J. R. Burke 50c Early-onset Dementias 273 G. Mazeika 51a Creutzfeldt–Jakob Disease and Other Degenerative Causes of Dementia 277 T. F. G. Esmonde 51b Frontotemporal Dementia (Pick’s Disease) 281 J. R. Hodges 52 Alcoholic and Other Toxic Dementias 285 E. M. Joyce 53 Reversible Dementias 289 M. Philpot and J. Pereira EVI Clinical Diagnosis of the Dementias 54 Differential Diagnosis of Dementia 293 C. Busby and A. Burns 55a Distinguishing Depression from Dementia 297 W. E. Fox and D. C. Steffens 55b Benign Senescent Forgetfulness, Age-associated Memory Impairment and Age-related Cognitive Decline 303 K. A. Welsh-Bohmer and D. J. Madden EVII Outcome of the Dementias and Subtypes 56 Minor Cognitive Impairment 305 K. Ritchie and J. Touchon Alzheimer’s Disease—One or Several? 307 C. Holmes and A. H. Mann Prognosis of Dementia 308 B. Reisberg, A. Kluger and E. Franssen EVIII Treatment and Management of Dementias 57 Acute Management of Dementia 313 B. Pitt 58a Present and Future Treatments of Alzheimer’s Disease 317 L. J. Whalley and J. M. Starr 58b Possible Future Treatments and Preventative Strategies for Alzheimer’s Disease 325 S. Lovestone 59a Psychological and Psychosocial Interventions 327 E. Miller 59b Informal Carers and Their Support 331 D. Buck The Role and Influence of the Alzheimer’s Society 334 N. Graham CONTENTS vii EIX Conditions Associated with, or Sometimes Mistaken for, Primary Psychiatric Conditions 60 The Psychiatric Manifestations of CNS Malignancies 335 M. Glantz and E. W. Massey 61 Peripheral Neuropathy and Peripheral Nerve Lesions 341 J. M. Massey and E. W. Massey EX Investigations of Organic States and Dementia 62 Electroencephalography (EEG) 345 The Late G. W. Fenton 63 Computed Tomography (CT) 351 A. Burns and G. Pearlson 64 Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) 355 K. R. R. Krishnan 65 Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) 357 K. R. R. Krishnan 66 Positron Emission Tomography (PET) 359 P. F. Liddle and C. L. Grady 67 Single-photon Emission Computed Tomography (SPECT) 363 M. T. Abou-Saleh PART F AFFECTIVE DISORDERS 369 FI Nosology and Classification 68 Nosology and Classification of Mood Disorders 371 D. G. Blazer FII Depression, Dysthymia, Bereavement and Suicidal Behaviour 69 Genetics of Affective Disorders 375 J. L. Beyer and D. C. Steffens 70a Environmental Factors, Life Events and Coping Abilities 379 T. C. Antonucci and J. S. Jackson 70b The Aetiology of Late-life Depression 381 M. Prince and A. Beekman Risk Factors and the Incidence of Post-stroke Depression 386 P. W. Burvill 71 Epidemiology of Depression: Prevalence and Incidence 389 D. G. Blazer Epidemiological Catchment Area Studies of Mood Disorders 392 D. G. Blazer EURODEP—Prevalence of Depression in Europe 393 J. R. M. Copeland Depression in Older Primary Care Patients: Diagnosis and Course 393 J. M. Lyness and E. D. Caine 72 Neurochemistry 397 L. S. Schneider, updated by M. T. Abou-Saleh 73 Neuro-imaging Neuro-imaging Studies of Depression 403 M. T. Abou-Saleh Is Imaging Justified in the Investigation of Older People? 404 D. McWilliam 74 Clinical Features of Depression and Dysthymia 407 D. G. Folks and C. V. Ford Outcome of Depressive Disorders: Findings of a Longitudinal Study in the UK 413 V. K. Sharma Longitudinal Studies of Mood Disorders in the USA 415 D. G. Blazer Outcome of Depression in Finland 416 S.-L. Kivela¨ 75a Physical Illness and Depression 417 M. E. Evans Physical Illness and Depression: A Number of Conundrums 423 M. R. Eastwood 75b Depression after Stroke 425 P. Knapp and A. House Treatment of Depression in Older People with Physical Disability 427 S. Banerjee and F. Ruths 76 Acute Management of Late-life Depression 429 V. Gardner and D. C. Steffens 77 Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT) 433 D. G. Wilkinson 78 Pharmacological Treatment of Depression 439 M. T. Abou-Saleh Treatment-resistant Depression 442 A. J. Flint 79 Psychotherapy of Depression and Dysthymia 445 T. R. Lynch and C. M. Vitt 80 Long-term Management of Affective Disorders 453 M. T. Abou-Saleh 81 Laboratory Diagnosis: Dexamethasone Suppression Test 461 M. T. Abou-Saleh 82 Bereavement 465 R. Kastenbaum 83 Suicidal Behaviour 469 H. Cattell FIII Mania 84 Genetics and Aetiology 473 T. Thompson and W. McDonald 85 Epidemiology and Risk Factors 477 S. Lehmann and P. Rabins 86 Mania: Clinical Features and Management 479 S. Lehmann and P. Rabins 87 Prognosis 481 M. M. Husain viii CONTENTS 88 The Management of Acute Mania 483 J. L. Beyer and K. R. R. Krishnan PART G SCHIZOPHRENIC DISORDERS AND MOOD-INCONGRUENT PARANOID STATES 491 89 Late-life Psychotic Disorders: Nosology and Classification 493 L. T. Eyler Zorrilla and D. Jeste 90 Clinical Assessment and Differential Diagnosis 497 D. N. Anderson 91 Aetiology, Genetics and Risk Factors 503 D. J. Castle and R. M. Murray Brain Imaging in Schizophrenia-like and Paranoid Disorders in Late Life 508 R. Howard 92 Schizophrenic Disorder and Mood-incongruent Paranoid States: Epidemiology, Prevalence, Incidence and Course 511 R. Howard 93 The Fate of Schizophrenia with Advancing Age: Research Findings and Implications for Clinical Care 513 R. Howard 94 Rehabilitation and Long-term Management 517 R. Pugh 95 Treatment of Late-onset Psychotic Disorders 521 E. M. Zayas and G. T. Grossberg 96 Risk Factors for Dyskinesia in the Elderly 527 T. R. E. Barnes PART H NEUROSES 535 97 Nosology and Classification of Neurotic Disorders 537 D. Bienenfeld 98 Epidemiology of Neurotic Disorders 541 D. G. Blazer 99 Stress, Coping and Social Support 545 L. R. Landerman and D. Hughes 100 Clinical Features of Anxiety Disorders 551 E. L. Cassidy, P. J. Swales and J. I. Sheikh 101 Prognosis of Anxiety Disorders 555 P. J. Swales, E. L. Cassidy and J. I. Sheikh 102 Acute Management of Anxiety and Phobias 559 J. I. Sheikh, E. L. Cassidy and P. J. Swales 103 Psychopharmacological Treatment of Anxiety 563 J. L. Beyer and K. R. R. Krishnan 104 Obsessive–Compulsive Disorder 571 J. Lindesay 105 Hypochondriacal Disorder 575 A. Allen and E. W. Busse 106 Other Neurotic Disorders 579 J. J. Schulte and D. Bienenfeld PART I PERSONALITY DISORDERS 585 107 Personality Disorders: Aetiology and Genetics 587 V. Molinari, T. Siebert and M. Swartz 108 Theoretical and Management Issues 593 R. C. Abrams PART J MENTAL AND BEHAVIOURAL DISORDERS DUE TO PSYCHOACTIVE SUBSTANCES 599 109 Alcohol Abuse in the Elderly 601 H. Kyomen and B. Liptzin 110 Epidemiology of Alcohol Problems and Drinking Patterns 607 C. F. Hybels and D. G. Blazer 111 Drug Misuse in the Elderly 613 P. Bown, A. H. Ghodse and M. T. Abou-Saleh Benzodiazepam Use and Abuse in the Community: Liverpool Studies 619 K. Wilson and P. Mottram PART K LEARNING AND BEHAVIOURAL DISORDERS 621 112 Old Age and Learning Disability 623 O. Raji and S. Hollins 113a Elderly Offenders 627 J. M. Parrott 113b Sleep and Ageing: Disorders and Management 631 H. Chiu Rating Scale for Aggressive Behaviour in the Elderly 633 L. C. W. Lam 114 Sexual Disorders 635 J. M. Kellett 115 Phenomenology of Wandering 637 A. Habib and G. T. Grossberg PART L THE PRESENTATION OF MENTAL ILLNESS IN ELDERLY PERSONS IN DIFFERENT CULTURES 639 116a Problems of Assessing Psychiatric Symptoms and Illness in Different Cultures 641 M. Abas 116b Depression in the Indian Subcontinent 645 V. Patel 116c Dementia in the Indian Subcontinent 647 S. Rajkumar, M. Ganguli and D. Jeste 117 Dementia and Depression in Africa 649 O. Baiyewu 118 Mental Illness in South America 651 S. L. Blay CONTENTS ix PART M THE PRACTICE OF PSYCHOGERIATRIC MEDICINE 653 119 Psychiatry of the Elderly—the WPA/WHO Consensus Statements 655 C. Katona MI The British Model of the Organization of Services 120 Development of Health and Social Services in the UK in the Twentieth Century 657 J. P. Wattis 121 The Pattern of Psychogeriatric Services 661 J. P. Wattis Organization of Services for the Elderly with Mental Disorders 664 E. Chiu 122 The Multidisciplinary Team 667 H. Rosenvinge 123 Community Care: The Background 671 C. Godber Health Care of the Elderly: The Nottingham Model 673 Tom Arie 124 The Development of Day Hospitals and Day Care 677 R. Jenkins and D. J. Jolley 125 Day Care 681 J. M. Eagles and J. Warrington 126 New Technology and the Care of Cognitively Impaired Older People 685 A. Sixsmith MII The North American Model of the Organization of Services 127 The United States System of Care 689 C. C. Colenda, S. J. Bartels and G. L. Gottlieb 128 Community-based Psychiatric Ambulatory Care: The Private Practice Model in the USA 697 E. M. Stein and G. S. Moak 129a The Psychiatrist’s Role in Linking Community Services 705 D. Johnston, K. A. Sherrill and B. V. Reifler 129b The Medical Psychiatry Inpatient Unit 709 D. G. Folks and F. C. Kinney 130 The Psychiatrist in the Nursing Home 713 W. E. Reichman Patient Autonomy vs. Duty of Care— the Old Age Psychiatrist’s Dilemma 715 A. Treloar 131 Psychiatric Services in Long-term Care 717 I. R. Katz, K. S. Van Haitsma and J. E. Streim 132 Care in Private Psychiatric Hospitals 723 K. G. Meador, M. M. Harkleroad and W. M. Petrie 133 Quality of Care and Quality of Life in Institutions for the Aged 727 M. Powell Lawton MIII Liaison with Medical and Surgical Teams 134 Liaison with Medical and Surgical Teams 731 S. A. Mann 135 Education and the Liaison Psychogeriatrician 737 D. N. Anderson MIV Rehabilitation and General Care 136 Rehabilitation 739 R. Jones 137 Anaesthetics and Mental State 743 D. G. Seymour 138a Nutritional State 749 D. N. Anderson and M. T. Abou-Saleh Mental Illness in Nursing Homes and Hostels in Australia 752 D. Ames 138b Caregivers and Their Support 755 K. C. Buckwalter, L. Garand and M. Maas The Sydney Dementia Carers’ Training Program 762 H. Brodaty 138c Elder Abuse—Epidemiology, Recognition and Management 771 M. J. Vernon 138d The Care of the Dying Patient 775 R. E. Nelson and K. G. Meador MV Prevention of the Mental Disorders of Old Age 139a Prevention in Mental Disorders of Late Life 779 B. D. Lebowitz and J. L. Pearson 139b A Damning Analysis of the Law and the Elderly Incompetent Patient— Rights, What Rights? 783 P. Edwards 139c Older People, Clinicians and Mental Health Regulation 789 E. Murphy MVI Education 140 Training Requirements for Old Age Psychiatrists in the UK 791 S. M. Benbow Old Age Psychiatrists and Stress 793 S. M. Benbow 141 Developing and Maintaining Links between Service Disciplines: The Program for Organizing Interdisciplinary Self-education (POISE) 795 J. A. Toner 142 Appendix: International Psychogeriatric Association 799 B. Reisberg and F. F. Finkel