Handbook of atmospheric science : principles and applications

Contents 2.4 Absorption of radiation by trace gases, 39 2.5 Solar radiation, ozone, and the stratospheric temperature profile, 40 2.6 Trapping of longwave radiation, 42 2.7 A simple model of radiation transfer, 42 2.8 A brief overview of more complex radiative transfer, 45 2.9 Conduction, convection, and sensible and latent heat, 46 2.10 The energy budget for the Earth’s atmosphere, 52 2.11 Energy transfer in the atmosphere and ocean, 55 2.12 Solar radiation and the biosphere, 56 References, 58 3 THE EARTH’S CLIMATES, 59 John G. Lockwood 3.1 Introduction, 59 3.2 Polar climates, 62 3.3 Temperate latitude climates, 69 3.4 Tropical climates, 75 3.5 Closing remarks, 87 References, 87 4 BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES AND RESIDENCE TIMES, 90 Dudley E. Shallcross, Kuo-Ying Wang, and Claudia H. Dimmer 4.1 Introduction, 90 4.2 The global carbon cycle, 90 4.3 The global nitrogen cycle, 96 List of contributors, ix Preface, xi Part 1: Principles of Atmospheric Science 1 CHEMICAL EVOLUTION OF THE ATMOSPHERE, 3 Richard P. Wayne 1.1 Introduction, 3 1.2 Creation of the planets and their earliest atmospheres, 4 1.3 The Earth’s atmosphere before life began, 9 1.4 Comparison of Venus, Earth, and Mars, 11 1.5 Life and the Earth’s atmosphere, 14 1.6 Carbon dioxide in Earth’s atmosphere, 18 1.7 The rise of oxygen concentrations, 20 1.8 Protection of life from ultraviolet radiation, 25 1.9 Conclusions, 29 1.10 Further reading, 29 References, 29 2 ATMOSPHERIC ENERGY AND THE STRUCTURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE, 35 Hugh Coe and Ann R. Webb 2.1 Introduction, 35 2.2 The structure of the Earth’s atmosphere, 35 2.3 Solar and terrestrial radiation, 37 vi Contents 4.4 The global sulfur cycle, 99 4.5 The global halogen cycle, 105 4.6 Conclusions, 117 References, 117 5 SOURCES OF AIR POLLUTION, 124 Andrea V. Jackson 5.1 Introduction, 124 5.2 Primary pollutants, 124 5.3 Long-lived pollutants, 138 5.4 Secondary gaseous pollutants, 140 5.5 Other hazardous air pollutants, 143 5.6 Particulate material, 145 References, 149 6 TROPOSPHERIC PHOTOCHEMISTRY, 156 Paul S. Monks 6.1 Introduction, 156 6.2 Initiation of photochemistry by light, 158 6.3 Tropospheric oxidation chemistry, 159 6.4 Nitrogen oxides and the photostationary state, 161 6.5 Production and destruction of ozone, 164 6.6 The tropospheric ozone budget, 168 6.7 The role of hydrocarbons, 169 6.8 Urban chemistry, 171 6.9 The spring ozone maximum, 173 6.10 Nighttime oxidation chemistry, 176 6.11 Ozone–alkene chemistry, 180 6.12 NO2–diene chemistry, 182 6.13 Sulfur chemistry, 182 6.14 Halogen chemistry, 184 6.15 Conclusions, 184 References, 184 7 STRATOSPHERIC CHEMISTRY AND TRANSPORT, 188 A. Robert Mackenzie 7.1 Introduction, 188 7.2 The structure of the stratosphere, 190 7.3 Gas-phase chemistry of the stratosphere, 196 7.4 Aerosols and clouds in the stratosphere, 201 7.5 Heterogeneous chemistry of the stratosphere, 202 7.6 Future perturbations to the stratosphere, 204 References, 206 8 AQUEOUS PHASE CHEMISTRY OF THE TROPOSPHERE, 211 Peter Brimblecombe 8.1 The aqueous phase in the atmosphere, 211 8.2 Nonvolatile solutes, 214 8.3 Reactions and photochemistry, 219 8.4 Conclusions, 224 References, 225 9 ATMOSPHERIC PARTICULATE MATTER, 228 Urs Baltensperger, Stefan Nyeki, and Markus Kalberer 9.1 Introduction, 228 9.2 Size distribution, composition, and concentration, 230 9.3 Aerosol sources, 230 9.4 Heterogeneous chemistry, 238 9.5 Climate forcing, 240 9.6 Tropospheric and stratospheric aerosols: remote sensing, 248 Appendix: nomenclature, 250 References, 251 10 ATMOSPHERIC DISPERSION AND AIR POLLUTION METEOROLOGY, 255 David Carruthers 10.1 Introduction, 255 10.2 The atmospheric boundary layer, 255 10.3 Atmospheric dispersion, 266 10.4 Mean concentrations, 270 10.5 Conclusions, 272 References, 274 11 SYNOPTIC-SCALE METEOROLOGY, 275 Douglas J. Parker 11.1 Introduction, 275 11.2 Basic physical descriptions and models, 275 Contents vii 11.3 Applications to weather systems, 299 11.4 On airmasses, 307 11.5 Practicalities: how to perform a synoptic analysis, 308 11.6 Conclusions, 311 References, 312 12 ATMOSPHERIC REMOVAL PROCESSES, 314 Brad D. Hall 12.1 Introduction, 314 12.2 Dry deposition of gases, 314 12.3 Bulk resistance (“big leaf”) model, 315 12.4 Dry deposition of particles, 324 12.5 Measuring dry deposition, 327 12.6 Wet deposition, 329 References, 334 Part 2: Problems, Tools, and Applications 13 GLOBAL AIR POLLUTION PROBLEMS, 339 Atul K. Jain and Katharine A.S. Hayhoe 13.1 Introduction, 339 13.2 Historical evidence of the impact of human activities on climate, 341 13.3 Future outlook of climate and ozone changes, 355 13.4 Potential impacts of stratospheric ozone and climate changes, 364 13.5 Pathways to policy considerations, 367 13.6 Conclusions, 370 References, 371 14 REGIONAL-SCALE POLLUTION PROBLEMS, 376 Crispin J. Halsall 14.1 Introduction, 376 14.2 Monitoring frameworks, 377 14.3 The regional ozone problem, 378 14.4 Deposition of nitrogen and sulfur across Europe: acidification and eutrophication, 384 14.5 Arctic haze, 388 14.6 Current trends and uncertainties in regional air pollution, 395 References, 395 15 URBAN-SCALE AIR POLLUTION, 399 Jes Fenger 15.1 Introduction, 399 15.2 Pollutants and sources, 402 15.3 From emission to pollution levels, 405 15.4 Urban-scale impacts, 411 15.5 Means of mitigation, 418 15.6 Case studies, 422 15.7 Conclusions, 432 References, 433 16 ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING TECHNIQUES, 439 Rod Robinson 16.1 Introduction, 439 16.2 Requirements, 439 16.3 Standardized methods, 440 16.4 Sampling techniques, 440 16.5 Expression of results, 441 16.6 Monitoring air quality, 441 16.7 Monitoring meteorological parameters, 461 16.8 Monitoring of the middle to upper atmosphere, 463 16.9 Conclusions, 470 References, 470 17 EMISSION INVENTORIES, 473 David Hutchinson 17.1 Introduction, 473 17.2 Emission inventory procedures, 477 17.3 Emissions from road traffic, 483 17.4 Emissions from rail transport, 489 17.5 Emissions at airports, 489 17.6 Emissions from shipping, 490 17.7 Area emission sources, 491 17.8 Point source emissions, 494 17.9 A comparison of the London and Tokyo atmospheric emissions inventories, 494 17.10 Conclusions, 499 References, 500 18 POLLUTANT DISPERSION MODELING, 503 Yasmin Vawda 18.1 Introduction, 503 viii Contents 18.2 Emission sources recognized by atmospheric dispersion models, 503 18.3 Assessment criteria for the results of dispersion models, 504 18.4 Meteorological data requirements of atmospheric dispersion models, 504 18.5 Types of atmospheric dispersion model, 509 18.6 Input data requirements, 510 18.7 Output data and interpretation, 516 18.8 Background air quality, 516 18.9 Choice of dispersion model, 516 18.10 Accuracy of dispersion modeling predictions, 520 Appendix: list of models, 520 References, 523 19 CLIMATE MODELING, 525 William Lahoz 19.1 Introduction, 525 19.2 The modeling tools, 529 19.3 Evaluation of the modeling tools, 547 19.4 Use of the modeling tools, 551 19.5 Latest results, 554 19.6 Future avenues, 557 References, 557 20 CRITICAL LEVELS AND CRITICAL LOADS AS A TOOL FOR AIR QUALITY MANAGEMENT, 562 Wim de Vries and Maximilian Posch 20.1 Introduction, 562 20.2 Critical levels of air pollutants, 564 20.3 Methods to derive critical loads for terrestrial ecosystems, 565 20.4 Critical loads of nitrogen, 570 20.5 Critical loads of acidity, 577 20.6 Critical loads for heavy metals, 585 20.7 The use of critical loads in policy assessments, 591 20.8 Discussion and conclusions, 597 References, 597 21 THE PRACTICE OF AIR QUALITY MANAGEMENT, 603 Bernard E.A. Fisher 21.1 Introduction to air quality management, 603 21.2 Carbon monoxide, 607 21.3 Benzene, 609 21.4 1,3-Butadiene, 611 21.5 Lead, 611 21.6 Nitrogen dioxide, 612 21.7 Sulfur dioxide, 614 21.8 Particles, 616 21.9 Ozone, 618 21.10 Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, 619 21.11 Dispersion models for local air quality management, 620 21.12 Accuracy of air pollution models, 624 21.13 Example of a method of estimating uncertainty, 625 21.14 Carbon dioxide, 626 References, 627 Index, 629 Color plates facing p. 180