Aquifer restoration : state of the art

I. INTRODUCTION 1 Classification of Methodologies 1 Overview Studies 4 Objective of This Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Scope of Study. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Organization of Report 11 Selected References 12 II. CONCLUSiONS 13 III. RECOMMENDATIONS 17 IV. GROUND WATER POLLUTION CONTROL 22 Institutional Measures 22 Regional Ground Water Management Districts 22 Source Control Strategies 23 Land Zoning 23 Effluent Charges/Credits 23 Aquifer Standards 24 Guidelines 24 Source Control Strategies 24 Stabilization/Solidification Strategies 25 Well Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Construction 31 Design 34 Application in Hydrocarbon Recovery 53 Costs 55 Advantages and Disadvantages 58 Interceptor Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 58 ix x Contents and Subject Index Construction 68 Collector Drains 68 Interceptor Trenches 72 Design 74 Collector Drains 74 Interceptor Trenches 76 Costs 77 Advantages and Disadvantages 77 Surface Water Control, Capping and liners 79 Construction-Surface Capping 84 Surface Capping-Selection and Design Considerations 85 Costs 98 Sheet Piling 98 Construction 98 Costs 100 Advantages and Disadvantages 100 Grouting 101 Construction 101 Design 106 Costs 108 Advantages and Disadvantages 115 Slurry Walls 115 Construction 115 Design 121 Costs 127 Advantages and Disadvantages 127 Selected References 132 V. TREATMENT OF GROUND WATER 136 Air Stripping 136 Descri ption of Process 138 Design Parameters and Procedures 140 Applications to Ground Water 142 Costs 145 Carbon Adsorption 145 Description of Process 150 Design Parameters and Procedures 153 Applications to Ground Water 156 Costs 156 Biological Treatment 158 Descri ption of Process 159 Design Parameters and Procedures 161 Applications to Ground Water 162 Costs 165 Chemical Precipitation 165 Description of Process 172 Design Parameters and Procedures 173 Applications to Ground Water 173 Contents and Subject Index xi Costs 175 Other Treatment Techniques for Inorganics 175 Treatment Trains 188 Selected References 188 VI. IN-SITU TECHNOLOGIES 191 In-Situ Chemical Treatment 191 Descri ption of Process 191 Advantages and Disadvantages 195 In-Situ Biological Stabilization 195 Enhancement of the Indigenous Population 200 Addition of Acclimated Microorganisms 215 Conclusions 227 Selected References 228 VII. PROTOCOL FOR AQUIFER RESTORATION DECISIONMAKING 236 Background Information 236 Conceptual Framework for Aquifer Restoration Decision- Making 242 Preliminary Activities 242 Multi-Disciplinary Team 242 Problem Definition and Characterization 245 Anticipated Problems 246 Existing Problems 247 Preliminary Study 247 Plume Delineation 248 Hydrogeologic Characteristics 252 Site Characterization 255 Water Use and Requirements 256 Human Health Costs and Risk Assessment 257 Land Use Patterns and Growth Projections 258 Regulations and Institutional Constraints 259 Funding 261 Data Evaluation 262 Data Needs 262 Development of Alternatives 263 Definition of Goals 264 Goals Identification Matrix 265 Technology-Decision Factor Matrix 265 Preliminary Screening 273 Scope Design 274 Iteration 274 Evaluation of Alternatives and Selection of Aquifer Restoration Strategy 275 Economic Considerations 275 Economic Evaluation 282 Environmental Evaluation _ 286 xii Contents and Subject Index Risk Assessment 287 Selected References 290 VIII. TECHNIQUES FOR DECISION-MAKING 293 Conceptual Framework for Trade-Off Analysis 295 Importance Weighting for Decision Factors 297 Systematic Comparison of Structured Importance Weighting Techniques. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298 Ranking Techniques for Importance Weighting 304 Public Preference Approach 305 Nominal Group Process Technique 305 Rating Techniques for Importance Weighting 306 Pre-Defined Importance Scale 307 Group Approach Using Scales of Importance 307 Multi-Attribute Utility Measurement Technique 311 Computerized Version of MAUM Technique 314 Paired Comparison Techniques for Importance Weighting 324 Unranked Paired Comparison Techniques 325 Ranked Paired Comparison Techniques 336 Delphi Technique for Importance Weighting 349 Scaling/Rating/Ranking of Alternatives 356 Paired Comparison Technique for Scaling/Rating/Ranking 358 Functional Curves for Scaling/Rating/Ranking 365 Development of Decision Matrix 366 Selected References 380 APPENDIX A: CASE STUDIES OF AQUIFER RESTORATION MEASURES 384 Introduction 384 Case A: Tar Creek in Oklahoma 385 Sources of Contaminants 388 Studies to Determine Remedial Actions 391 Proposed Remedial Action 399 Case B: Gilson Road in New Hampshire 399 Sources of Contaminants 403 Studies to Determine Remedial Actions 405 Remedial Actions Implemented 416 Case C: Rocky Mountain Arsenal. 419 Sources of Contamination 423 Studies to Determine Remedial Actions 425 Remedial Actions Implemented 430 New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection Aquifer Restoration Program 436 Case Studies of Aquifer Restoration via Biological Processes 444 Selected References 455 Contents and Subject Index xiii APPENDIX B: CONSIDERATIONS RELATED TO AQUIFER RESTORATION INFORMATION CENTER 458 Introduction 458 Conceptual Framework for Aquifer Restoration Information Center 459 Summary 463 APPENDIX C: AIR STRIPPING OF VOLATILE ORGANICS FROM GROUND WATER 464 Introduction 464 Mass Transfer Process: Theory 465 Choice of Air Stripping Method 469 Diffused Aerator 470 Packed Tower 470 Coke Tray Aerator. 470 Cross-Flow Tower 473 Summary of Methods 473 Design of a Packed Tower 473 Case Study Related to Ground Water 477 Costs of Aeration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482 Desorption Rate of Air Strippable Organics in Ground Water 482 Air Pollution Considerations 485 Selected References 487 APPENDIX D: ACTIVATED CARBON ADSORPTION OF ORGANICS FROM GROUND WATER 489 Introduction 489 Adsorption Isotherms 489 Single and Multistage Adsorption 492 Fixed Bed Adsorption 498 Predictive Model for Design 503 Economic Considerations 507 Selected References 507 APPENDIX E: PUBLIC PARTICIPATION IN AQUIFER RESTORATION DECISION-MAKING 509 Introduction 509 Basic Definitions 509 Advantages and Disadvantages of Public Participation 510 Public Participation in the Decision-Making Process 513 Objectives of Public Participation 516 Identification of Publics 525 Recognition of Types of Publics 525 Pragmatic Approaches for Identifying Publics 531 Selected Techniques for Communicating with Identified Publics 538 Selection of Public Participation Techniques 538 Techniques Classification According to Function 540 xiv Contents and Subject Index Techniques Classification According to Communication Characteristics and Potential for Meeting Stated Objectives 544 Catalog of Additional Techniques 555 Practical Plan for Implementing Public Participation Program 574 Practical Suggestions for Implementing Program 575 Incorporation of Results in Decision-Making 578 Selected References 578 APPENDIX F: RISK ASSESSMENT AS RELATED TO AQUIFER RESTORATION PLANNING 581 Introduction 581 Background Information 582 Elements of Risk Assessment 588 Environmental Risk Analysis 590 Risk Assessment for Hazardous Waste Disposal Sites 601 Hazard Ranking System 606 Site Rating Methodology 609 Air Quality Risk Assessment System 615 Summary 618 Selected References 619 APPENDIX G: ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY FOR AQUIFER RESTORATION 622