Dietary proteins and atherosclerosis

Introduction Epidemiologic Data Clinical Data Chapter 1 Protocol Design for Experimental Data on the Effects of Food Proteins on Plasma Lipids and Lipid Metabolism 1.1 General Conditions for Protocol Design 1.2 Animal Species 1.3 Genetic Factors 1.4 Age 1.5 Sex 1.6 Diet 1.7 Similarities and Contrasts between Animals and Humans 1.8 Conclusion Chapter 2 Experimental Data on Animals 2.1 Effects of Dietary Protein Level 2.1.1 Birds 2.1.1.1 Chickens and Cockerels 2.1.1.2 Pigeons 2.1.1.3 Quails 2.1.2 Rabbits 2.1.3 Rodents 2.1.3.1 Rats 2.1.3.2 Mice and Hamsters 2.1.4 Dogs 2.1.5 Calves 2.1.6 Pigs 2.1.7 Monkeys 2.1.8 Summary 2.1.9 Effects of Low-Protein Diet on Plasma Lipids, Liver Enzymes, Lipid Metabolism, and Biliary Flow 2.1.9.1 Plasma Lipids 2.1.9.2 Liver Enzymes and Lipid Metabolism 2.1.9.3 Biliary Flow 2.1.10 Effects of High-Protein Diet on Enzymes and Liver Lipogenesis 2.1.11 Conclusion © 2004 by CRC Press LLC 2.2 Effects of the Nature of Proteins 2.2.1 Casein versus Soybean Protein: Effects on Serum Cholesterol Concentrations 2.2.1.1 Birds 2.2.1.2 Rabbits 2.2.1.3 Rats 2.2.1.4 Mice 2.2.1.5 Guinea Pigs and Hamsters 2.2.1.6 Pigs 2.2.1.7 Monkeys 2.2.2 Casein versus Soybean Protein: Effects on Lipid and Cholesterol Metabolisms 2.2.2.1 Rabbits 2.2.2.2 Rats 2.2.3 Casein versus Soybean Protein: Effects on Lipoproteins 2.2.3.1 Birds 2.2.3.2 Rabbits 2.2.3.3 Rats 2.2.3.4 Monkeys 2.2.4 Casein versus Soybean Protein: Effects on Apoproteins 2.2.5 Casein versus Soybean Protein: Effects on Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids 2.2.6 Summary 2.3 Effects of Various Types of Soybean Protein and Casein Products 2.3.1 Soybean Protein Isolates 2.3.1.1 Gerbils 2.3.1.2 Rabbits 2.3.1.3 Rats and Mice 2.3.1.4 Hamsters 2.3.1.5 Pigs 2.3.1.6 Monkeys 2.3.2 Soybean Protein Extracts of High or Low Molecular Weight and Undigested Fractions of Soybean Protein 2.3.3 Germinated or Fermented Soybean 2.3.4 Soybean Protein Hydrolysates 2.3.5 Casein and Soybean Protein Treated with Formaldehyde 2.3.6 Sodium Caseinate 2.3.7 Summary 2.4 Influence of Dietary Food Environments on Effects of Soybean Protein and Casein 2.4.1 Balance 2.4.2 Fatty Acid Content 2.4.3 Choline and Lecithin Content 2.4.4 Cholesterol Content 2.4.5 Carbohydrate Content 2.4.6 Dietary Fiber Content © 2004 by CRC Press LLC 2.4.7 Mineral and Vitamin Content 2.4.7.1 Calcium Content 2.4.7.2 Zinc, Copper, and Magnesium Content 2.4.7.3 Vitamin A and Vitamin E Content 2.4.8 Conclusion 2.5 Effects of Other Food Proteins 2.5.1 Vegetable Proteins 2.5.1.1 Wheat and Corn Gluten 2.5.1.2 Rice and Rice-Protein Concentrates 2.5.1.3 Other Vegetable Proteins 2.5.1.4 Summary 2.5.2 Animal Proteins 2.5.2.1 Fish Protein 2.5.2.2 Milk Protein 2.5.2.3 Egg Protein 2.5.2.4 Beef Protein 2.5.2.5 Carnitine 2.5.3 Animal and Vegetable Proteins 2.5.4 Summary 2.6 Effects of Amino Acid Mixtures and Amino Acids 2.6.1 Amino Acid Mixtures 2.6.1.1 Rabbits 2.6.1.2 Rats 2.6.1.3 Monkeys 2.6.1.4 Summary 2.6.2 Amino Acids 2.6.2.1 Alanine 2.6.2.2 Cysteine 2.6.2.3 Ethionine 2.6.2.4 Glutamic Acid 2.6.2.5 Glycine 2.6.2.6 Histidine 2.6.2.7 Isoleucine 2.6.2.8 Leucine 2.6.2.9 Methionine 2.6.2.10 Phenylalanine 2.6.2.11 Taurine 2.6.2.12 Threonine 2.6.2.13 Tryptophan 2.6.2.14 Tyrosine 2.6.2.15 Valine 2.6.2.16 Summary and Conclusion 2.7 Action Mechanisms of Soybean Protein, Casein, and Amino Acids 2.7.1 Effects on Digestive Absorption of Lipids, Cholesterol, and Steroids and Fecal Excretion of Steroids © 2004 by CRC Press LLC 2.7.1.1 Digestive Absorption of Lipids, Cholesterol, and Steroids 2.7.1.2 Fecal Excretion of Steroids and Bile Acids 2.7.2 Effects on Serum Lipids, Liver Cholesterol, and Liver Enzymes 2.7.3 Effects of Amino Acids and Lysine/Arginine Ratio 2.7.3.1 Amino Acids 2.7.3.2 Lysine/Arginine Ratio 2.7.3.3 Action Mechanism of Amino Acids 2.7.4 Effects of Nonprotein Components 2.7.4.1 Dietary Fibers 2.7.4.2 Phytates 2.7.4.3 Saponins 2.7.4.4 Isoflavones 2.7.4.5 Soybean Globulins 2.7.5 Effects on Endocrine Responses 2.7.5.1 Insulin and Glucagon 2.7.5.2 Growth Hormone 2.7.5.3 Thyroid Hormones 2.7.5.4 Cortisol and Corticosterone 2.7.6 Conclusion Chapter 3 Experimental Data on Humans 3.1 Healthy Humans 3.1.1 Amount of Proteins 3.1.2 Nature of Proteins 3.1.2.1 Casein and Soybean Protein 3.1.2.2 Fish, Pork, Beef, Soybean Protein Analogues, and Poultry Proteins 3.1.2.3 Milk and Whey Proteins 3.1.2.4 Egg Protein 3.1.2.5 Amino Acids 3.1.2.6 Carnitine 3.1.2.7 Food Environments 3.2 Hyperlipidemic Humans 3.2.1 Soybean Protein, Animal Protein, and Amino Acids 3.2.2 Wheat Gluten 3.2.3 Garlic Protein 3.2.4 Food Environments 3.2.5 Summary 3.3 Mechanisms Involved in Soybean Protein, Casein, and Amino Acid Effects 3.3.1 Effects on Digestive Absorption of Lipids and Fecal Excretion of Steroids 3.3.2 Effects on Hepatic and Lipoprotein Cholesterol 3.3.3 Effects of Nonprotein Components © 2004 by CRC Press LLC 3.3.3.1 Lecithin 3.3.3.2 Dietary Fibers 3.3.3.3 Saponins 3.3.3.4 Isoflavones 3.3.3.5 Summary 3.3.4 Effects on Endocrine Response 3.3.4.1 Insulin and Glucagon 3.3.4.2 Growth Hormone 3.3.4.3 Thyroid Hormones 3.3.4.4 Cortisol and Corticosterone 3.4 Conclusion Chapter 4 Data on Atherosclerosis 4.1 Experimental Data in Animals 4.1.1 Low-Protein Diet 4.1.2 High-Protein Diet 4.1.3 Nature of Proteins 4.1.4 Amino Acids 4.1.4.1 Arginine 4.1.4.2 Lysine 4.1.4.3 Lysine/ L -Arginine and L -Arginine/Aspartic Acid Ratios 4.1.4.4 Methionine 4.1.4.5 Taurine 4.1.4.6 Summary 4.1.5 Immunologic Effects of Proteins 4.1.6 Glutathione 4.1.7 Influence of Food Environments on Diets 4.1.7.1 Copper and Zinc 4.1.7.2 Choline and Lecithin 4.1.7.3 Dietary Fibers 4.1.7.4 Isoflavones 4.1.8 Conclusion 4.2 Data on Humans 4.2.1 Epidemiologic Data 4.2.1.1 Animal Proteins 4.2.1.2 Taurine 4.2.1.3 Biological Parameters 4.2.2 Experimental Data 4.2.2.1 Dairy Proteins 4.2.2.2 Amino Acids 4.2.2.3 Immunologic Effects of Proteins 4.2.2.4 Dietary Fibers 4.2.2.5 Isoflavones 4.2.3 Conclusion © 2004 by CRC Press LLC Chapter 5 Data on Hypertension 5.1 Data on Animals 5.1.1 Summary 5.2 Data on Humans 5.2.1 Epidemiologic Data 5.2.2 Experimental Data 5.2.2.1 Nature of Proteins 5.2.2.2 Amino Acids 5.2.2.3 Isoflavones 5.3 Mechanisms 5.3.1 Effects of Sympathetic Nervous System 5.3.2 Dietary Protein and Natriuresis 5.3.3 Effects of Amino Acids 5.3.3.1 Arginine 5.3.3.2 Lysine 5.3.3.3 Methionine 5.3.3.4 Taurine 5.3.3.5 Tyrosine and Tryptophan 5.4 Effects of Casein Peptides 5.5 Conclusion Chapter 6 Data on Thrombosis in Animals and Humans 6.1 Effects of Proteins 6.1.1 Milk Peptides from Casein, Soybean Protein, Lactalbumin, Lactotransferrin, and Other Proteins 6.1.2 Immunoglobulins 6.1.3 Amino Acids 6.1.3.1 Arginine 6.1.3.2 Methionine and Homocysteine 6.1.3.3 Taurine 6.1.3.4 Tryptophan 6.2 Effects of Isoflavones 6.3 Conclusion Chapter 7 General Conclusions References Amino Acid Index Alanine Arginine Cysteine and Cystine Ethionine © 2004 by CRC Press LLC Glutamic Acid Glycine L -Histidine Isoleucine Leucine Lysine Lysine/Arginine Ratio Methionine Phenylalanine Serine Taurine Threonine Tryptophan Tyrosine Valine ©