Biogeochemical, health, and ecotoxicological perspectives on gold and gold mining

2.1 Gold production in Canada in 1975, 1985, and 1992 by source..................13 2.2 Total gold production in the United States, 1799–1965 ...............................16 2.3 Total placer gold production in the United States, 1792–1969 ....................17 2.4 U.S. gold production by state: 1995 vs. 2000...............................................18 4.1 Oxidation states of gold, examples, and stability in water ...........................41 5.1 Gold concentrations in selected abiotic materials.........................................52 5.2 Gold concentrations in selected plants and animals .....................................57 6.1 Distribution of 198 Au + in anesthetized Sprague-Dawley rats ........................79 9.1 Gold thiolate compounds used medicinally ................................................133 10.1 Metal concentrations (in ى g/L) in stream waters at Goldenville Gold Mine, Nova Scotia .......................................................................................176 10.2 Average concentrations of Cd, Cu, Pb, and Zn in waters, soils, and crops near Korean gold mining activities....................................................176 10.3 Acute toxicity of aged gold mill effluent to marine fishes and crustaceans ...................................................................................................181 10.4 Tissue metal burdens of juvenile tanner crabs, Chionoecetes bairdi .........181 10.5 U.S. Food and Drug Administration guidance for arsenic, cadmium, lead, and nickel in shellfish .........................................................................182 10.6 Drinking water limits and soil threshold values for protection of human health ............................................................................................................184 11.1 Cyanide and metals concentrations in water and sediments downstream of Portovela-Zaruma cyanide-gold mining area, Ecuador; dry season, 1988..............................................................................................................192 11.2 Single oral dose toxicity of sodium cyanide (mg NaCN/kg body weight) fatal to 50% of selected birds and mammals ..............................................200 12.1 Arsenic concentrations in biota and abiotic materials collected near gold mining and processing facilities..........................................................226 12.2 Lethal and sublethal effects of various arsenicals on humans and selected species of plants and animals ........................................................231 12.3 Proposed arsenic criteria for the protection of human health and selected natural resources ............................................................................242 13.1 Total mercury concentrations in abiotic materials, plants, and animals near active Brazilian gold mining and refining sites ..................................259 13.2 Total mercury concentrations in abiotic materials, plants, and animals near historic gold mining and refining sites in the United States ..............271 13.3 Lethal effects of mercury to sensitive species of aquatic organisms, birds, and mammals .....................................................................................278 13.4 Proposed mercury criteria for the protection of selected natural resources and human health.........................................................................287 14.1 Metals and arsenic in tailings, soils, rice, and groundwater near an abandoned gold-silver-copper-zinc mine, Dongil, Korea, 2000–2001 .......311 Contents Part 1 Gold and Gold Compounds ................................................ 1 Chapter 1 Introduction........................................................................................3 Literature Cited..........................................................................................................5 Chapter 2 Geology, Sources, and Production ....................................................7 2.1 Geology ............................................................................................................8 2.2 Sources and Production .................................................................................10 2.2.1 Asia and Environs ..............................................................................12 2.2.2 Canada................................................................................................12 2.2.3 Europe ................................................................................................13 2.2.4 Republic of South Africa (RSA) .......................................................14 2.2.5 South America....................................................................................14 2.2.6 United States ......................................................................................14 2.3 Summary ........................................................................................................19 Literature Cited........................................................................................................19 Chapter 3 Uses ................................................................................................23 3.1 Jewelry............................................................................................................23 3.2 Coinage...........................................................................................................24 3.3 Electronics......................................................................................................26 3.4 Radiogold .......................................................................................................26 3.5 Medicine.........................................................................................................28 3.6 Dentistry .........................................................................................................31 3.7 Delivery Vehicle .............................................................................................32 3.8 Electron Microscopy ......................................................................................32 3.9 Other...............................................................................................................33 3.10 Summary ........................................................................................................33 Literature Cited........................................................................................................33 Chapter 4 Properties .........................................................................................39 4.1 Physical Properties .........................................................................................39 4.2 Chemical Properties .......................................................................................41 4.3 Biochemical Properties ..................................................................................43 4.4 Summary ........................................................................................................47 Literature Cited........................................................................................................48 Chapter 5 Gold Concentrations in Field Collections.......................................51 5.1 Abiotic Materials............................................................................................51 5.2 Plants ..............................................................................................................56 5.3 Animals ..........................................................................................................59 5.4 Summary ........................................................................................................60 Literature Cited........................................................................................................61 Chapter 6 The Effects of Gold on Plants and Animals ...................................65 6.1 Aquatic Organisms.........................................................................................65 6.1.1 Monovalent Gold ...............................................................................65 6.1.2 Trivalent Gold ....................................................................................66 6.2 Accumulation .................................................................................................67 6.2.1 Microorganisms, Fungi, and Higher Plants.......................................68 6.2.2 Aquatic Macrofauna...........................................................................72 6.2.3 Animal Fibrous Proteins ....................................................................73 6.3 Laboratory Mammals.....................................................................................73 6.3.1 Metallic Gold .....................................................................................73 6.3.2 Monovalent Gold: Obese Mouse Model ...........................................74 6.3.3 Monovalent Gold: Other ....................................................................75 6.3.4 Trivalent Gold ....................................................................................80 6.4 Summary ........................................................................................................81 Literature Cited........................................................................................................82 Part 2 Human Health Impacts ..................................................... 89 Chapter 7 Health Risks of Gold Miners ..........................................................91 7.1 Historical Background ...................................................................................91 7.2 Health Risks: Underground Miners...............................................................93 7.2.1 Australia .............................................................................................93 7.2.2 North America....................................................................................94 7.2.3 South America....................................................................................95 7.2.4 Europe ................................................................................................96 7.2.5 Africa..................................................................................................96 7.3 Health Risks: Surface Miners Who Use Mercury.......................................100 7.3.1 Case Histories ..................................................................................101 7.3.2 Mercury in Tissues...........................................................................102 7.3.3 Mercury in Air and in Fish Diet......................................................104 7.4 Summary ......................................................................................................105 Literature Cited......................................................................................................106 Chapter 8 Human Sensitivity to Gold............................................................113 8.1 History..........................................................................................................113 8.2 Adverse Reactions........................................................................................115 8.2.1 Suicide Attempt................................................................................115 8.2.2 Teratogenicity and Carcinogenicity .................................................115 8.2.3 Hypersensitivity................................................................................115 8.3 Case Histories ..............................................................................................118 8.3.1 Hypersensitivity................................................................................118 8.3.2 Goldschlager Syndrome...................................................................121 8.3.3 Prostheses .........................................................................................122 8.3.4 Protective Effect of Gold Rings.......................................................123 8.4 Dental Aspects..............................................................................................123 8.4.1 Allergic Reactions and Sensitization...............................................123 8.4.2 Case Histories ..................................................................................125 8.5 Summary ......................................................................................................126 Literature Cited......................................................................................................126 Chapter 9 Chrysotherapy................................................................................131 9.1 History..........................................................................................................131 9.2 Proposed Modes of Action ..........................................................................134 9.2.1 Au + and Au + Metabolites .................................................................135 9.2.2 Immunomodulatory Activity............................................................139 9.2.3 Tumor Necrosis Factor.....................................................................141 9.2.4 Bone Resorption...............................................................................142 9.2.5 Leukocyte Infiltration.......................................................................142 9.2.6 Lysosomal Enzymes.........................................................................142 9.2.7 Macrophages ....................................................................................143 9.2.8 Polymorphic Neutrophils .................................................................143 9.2.9 Sulfhydryl Binding Sites..................................................................143 9.2.10 Superoxide Ion .................................................................................144 9.2.11 Thioredoxin Reductase ....................................................................144 9.3 Treatment Regimes, Case Histories, and Adverse Effects ..........................144 9.3.1 Treatment Regimes ..........................................................................145 9.3.2 Case Histories ..................................................................................146 9.3.3 Adverse Effects ................................................................................148 9.4 Summary ......................................................................................................154 Literature Cited......................................................................................................155 Part 3 Effects of Gold Extraction on Ecosystems..................... 161 Chapter 10 Gold Mine Wastes: History, Acid Mine Drainage, and Tailings Disposal..........................................................................................163 10.1 Overview ......................................................................................................163 10.1.1 Lode Mining.....................................................................................165 10.1.2 Placer Mining...................................................................................166 10.2 Acid Mine Drainage.....................................................................................168 10.2.1 Effects...............................................................................................169 10.2.2 Mitigation .........................................................................................170 10.3 Tailings .........................................................................................................172 10.3.1 Freshwater Disposal .........................................................................172 10.3.2 Marine Disposal ...............................................................................178 10.3.3 Terrestrial Storage ............................................................................183 10.4 Waste Rock...................................................................................................183 10.5 Summary ......................................................................................................183 Literature Cited......................................................................................................184 Chapter 11 Cyanide Hazards to Plants and Animals from Gold Mining and Related Water Issues...............................................................189 11.1 History of Cyanide Use in Gold Mining.....................................................189 11.2 Cyanide Hazards ..........................................................................................195 11.2.1 Aquatic Ecosystems .........................................................................195 11.2.2 Birds .................................................................................................199 11.2.3 Mammals..........................................................................................201 11.2.4 Terrestrial Flora................................................................................203 11.3 Cyanide Mitigation and Research Needs ....................................................203 11.4 Water Management Issues ...........................................................................206 11.4.1 Affected Resources ..........................................................................207 11.4.2 Pit Lakes...........................................................................................211 11.5 Water Quality and Management Research Needs.......................................213 11.6 Summary ......................................................................................................214 Literature Cited......................................................................................................215 Chapter 12 Arsenic Hazards from Gold Mining for Humans, Plants, and Animals..........................................................................................221 12.1 Arsenic Sources to the Biosphere from Gold Mining ................................221 12.2 Arsenic Risks to Human Health ..................................................................223 12.3 Arsenic Concentrations in Abiotic Materials and Biota near Gold Extraction Facilities .....................................................................................225 12.4 Arsenic Effects on Sensitive Species...........................................................230 12.5 Proposed Arsenic Criteria ............................................................................241 12.6 Summary ......................................................................................................244 Literature Cited......................................................................................................245 Chapter 13 Mercury Hazards from Gold Mining for Humans, Plants, and Animals..........................................................................................251 13.1 History of Mercury in Gold Mining............................................................251 13.2 Ecotoxicological Aspects of Amalgamation................................................255 13.2.1 Brazil ................................................................................................255 13.2.2 South America Other than Brazil ....................................................265 13.2.3 Africa................................................................................................267 13.2.4 People’s Republic of China .............................................................268 13.2.5 The Philippines ................................................................................268 13.2.6 Siberia...............................................................................................269 13.2.7 Canada..............................................................................................269 13.2.8 The United States.............................................................................270 13.3 Lethal and Sublethal Effects of Mercury ....................................................276 13.3.1 Aquatic Organisms...........................................................................277 13.3.2 Birds .................................................................................................281 13.3.3 Mammals..........................................................................................284 13.3.4 Other Groups....................................................................................286 13.4 Proposed Mercury Criteria...........................................................................286 13.5 Summary ......................................................................................................292 Literature Cited......................................................................................................293 Chapter 14 Abandoned Underground Gold Mines ..........................................307 14.1 Habitat for Biota ..........................................................................................307 14.2 Land Development .......................................................................................309 14.3 Effects on Water Quality..............................................................................310 14.4 Science Site Potential...................................................................................312 14.5 Summary ......................................................................................................312 Literature Cited......................................................................................................312 Part 4 Mining Legislation, Concluding Remarks, and Indices ............................................................................. 315 Chapter15 Selected Mining Legislation..........................................................317 15.1 United States ................................................................................................317 15.1.1 Federal Laws ....................................................................................317 15.1.2 Mining Public Lands in the Western United States ........................323 15.1.3 State Laws........................................................................................327 15.1.4 Mining Law Reform ........................................................................328 15.2 Foreign..........................................................................................................328 15.3 Summary ......................................................................................................330 Literature Cited......................................................................................................331 Chapter 16 Concluding Remarks .....................................................................333