Fire retardant materials

Preface xi List of contributors xiii 1 Introduction: polymer combustion, condensed phase pyrolysis and smoke formation 1 dennis price, geoffrey anthony and peter carty 1.1 Polymers 1 1.2 Condensed-phase processes 11 1.3 Smoke 19 1.4 Conclusions 28 1.5 Bibliography 28 References 28 2 Mechanisms and modes of action in flame retardancy of polymers 31 menachem lewin and edward d weil 2.1 Introduction 31 2.2 General considerations 31 2.3 Gas-phase mechanisms 32 2.4 The condensed-phase mechanism 35 2.5 Modes of action of halogen-based flame retardants: synergistic systems 39 2.6 Modes of action of phosphorus-based flame retardants 43 2.7 Modes of action of borates 55 2.8 Modes of action of metal hydroxides and other hydrated inorganic additives 56 References 57 v 3 Toxicity of fire retardants in relation to life safety and environmental hazards 69 david purser 3.1 Introduction 69 3.2 Toxic combustion products from fires: general 71 3.3 Toxic effects of smoke products 76 3.4 Methods available and hazards to be assessed 78 3.5 Effects of specific fire-retardant systems 86 3.6 Conclusions 121 References 123 4 Textiles 128 a richard horrocks 4.1 Introduction 128 4.2 Hazards and risks 128 4.3 Burning behaviour of textiles 131 4.4 Flammability testing of textiles 140 4.5 Burning and flame-retardant mechanisms 146 4.6 Cellulosic textiles 153 4.7 Flame-retardant wool and blends 157 4.8 Flame-retardant synthetic fibres 160 4.9 High heat- and flame-resistant fibres and textiles 166 4.10 Methods of flame retardancy 169 4.11 Environmental issues 174 4.12 Conclusions 177 References 178 5 Composites 182 baljinder k kandola and a richard horrocks 5.1 Introduction 182 5.2 The properties of the constituents of composites 183 5.3 Flammability of composite structures 193 5.4 Methods of imparting flame retardancy to composites 197 5.5 Conclusions: some important considerations 201 References 201 6 Nanocomposites 204 baljinder k kandola 6.1 Introduction 204 6.2 The structure and properties of layered silicates 205 6.3 The structure of nanocomposites 207 vi Contents 6.4 Synthesis methods 208 6.5 Characterisation 210 6.6 Properties of nanocomposites 210 6.7 The mechanism of flame retardance in nanocomposites 214 6.8 Conclusion 217 References 217 7 Recent developments in flame-retarding thermoplastics and thermosets 220 paul joseph and john r ebdon 7.1 Introduction 220 7.2 Thermoplastics versus thermosets 221 7.3 Factors affecting flammability and its reduction 221 7.4 Testing procedures and hazard assessments: general aspects 227 7.5 Flame-retardant thermoplastics 229 7.6 Flame-retardant elastomers 242 7.7 Flame-retardant thermosets 245 7.8 Inherently flame-retardant polymers 248 7.9 Conclusions 249 References 249 8 Applications of halogen flame retardants 264 pierre georlette 8.1 Introduction 264 8.2 Mechanism of flame retardancy with halogenated compounds 265 8.3 Guidelines for choice of halogenated flame retardants 276 8.4 New trends in halogenated flame retardants 289 8.5 Conclusions 290 Acknowledgements 291 References 291 9 Natural polymers, wood and lignocellulosic materials 293 ryszard kozlowski and maria wladyka-przybylak 9.1 Combustion of natural polymers, wood and lignocellulosic materials 293 9.2 Chemistry of fire retardancy 297 9.3 Fire retardancy of lignocellulosic boards and panels 305 Contents vii 9.4 Test methods 309 9.5 Recent progress in fire retardants for wood and lignocellulosics 311 References 312 10 Intumescent materials 318 giovanni camino and s lomakin 10.1 Introduction 318 10.2 Physical modelling of intumescent polymer behaviour in fires 319 10.3 Chemical aspects of intumescence 325 10.4 Intumescent systems 332 10.5 Conclusion 332 References 335 11 Graft copolymerisation as a tool for flame retardancy 337 charles a wilkie 11.1 Introduction: the production of char from polymers 337 11.2 The importance of char 338 11.3 Conclusion 351 References 351 12 Performance-based test methods for material flammability 355 bjِrn karlsson 12.1 Introduction 355 12.2 Testing and ranking systems 356 12.3 Performance-based test methods 362 12.4 End-use scenarios, critical conditions and controlling processes 366 12.5 Models for calculating upward flame spread and fire growth 368 12.6 Conclusions and recommendations 374 References 375 13 Fire safety design requirements of flame-retarded materials 378 dougal drysdale 13.1 Introduction: drawbacks of tests and methods 378 13.2 Some fundamentals 382 13.3 Selection of materials as part of the design process 386 13.4 Conclusions 394 References 395 viii Contents 14 Mathematical modelling 398 j staggs 14.1 Introduction 398 14.2 A basic model for single-step pyrolysis 399 14.3 Extensions of the simple model 407 14.4 Ignition 415 14.5 Discussion 418 References 420 Index 425