Air pollution control technology handbook

Chapter 1 A Historical Overview of the Development of Clean Air Regulations 1.1 A Brief History of the Air Pollution Problem 1.2 Federal Involvement in Air Pollution Control 1.3 Characterizing the Atmosphere 1.4 Recipe for an Air Pollution Problem 1.4.1 Sources of Air Pollution 1.4.2 Meteorological Parameters Affecting Transport of Pollutants 1.4.3 The Effects of Air Pollution — A Comparison of London Fog and Los Angeles Smog Refereances Chapter 2 Clean Air Act 2.1 History of the Clean Air Act 2.1.1 1970 Clean Air Act Amendments 2.1.1.1 National Ambient Air Quality Standards 2.1.1.2 New Source Performance Standards 2.1.1.3 Hazardous Air Pollutants 2.1.1.4 Citizen Suits 2.1.2 1977 Clean Air Act Amendments 2.1.2.1 Prevention of Significant Deterioration 2.1.2.2 Offsets in Non-Attainment Areas 2.2 1990 Clean Air Act Amendments 2.2.1 Title I: Provisions for Attainment and Maintenance of National Ambient Air Quality Standards 2.2.1.1 NAAQS Revisions 2.2.2 Title II: Mobile Sources 2.2.3 Title III: Hazardous Air Pollutant Program 2.2.3.1 Source Categories 2.2.3.2 Establishing MACT Standards 2.2.3.3 Risk Management Plans 2.2.4 Title IV: Acid Deposition Control 2.2.5 Title V: Operating Permits 2.2.6 Title VI: Stratospheric Ozone Protection 2.2.7 Title VII: Enforcement 2.2.8 Title VIII: Miscellaneous Provisions 2.2.9 Title IX: Research 2.2.10 Title X: Disadvantaged Business 2.2.11 Title XI: Employment Transition Assistance References Chapter 3 Air Permits for New Source 3.1 Elements of a Permit Application 3.1.1 Applicability 3.1.1.1 Potential to Emit 3.1.1.2 Fugitive Emissions 3.1.1.3 Secondary Emissions 3.1.2 Significant Emission Rates 3.1.3 Modification 3.1.4 Emissions Netting 3.1.4.1 Netting Example 3.2 Best Available Control Technology 3.2.1 Step 1: Identify Control Technologies 3.2.2 Step 2: Eliminate Technically Infeasible Options 3.2.3 Step 3: Rank Remaining Options by Control Effectiveness 3.2.4 Step 4: Evaluate Control Technologies in Order of Control Effectiveness 3.2.4.1 Energy Impacts 3.2.4.2 Environmental Impacts 3.2.4.3 Economic Impacts and Cost Effectiveness 3.2.5 Step 5: Select BACT 3.3 Air Quality Analysis 3.3.1 Preliminary Analysis 3.3.2 Full Analysis 3.4 NSR Reform References Chapter 4 Atmospheric Diffusion Modeling for PSD Permit Regulations 4.1 Introduction — Meteorological Background 4.1.1 Inversions 4.1.1.1 Surface or Radiation Inversions 4.1.1.2 Evaporation Inversion 4.1.1.3 Advection Inversion 4.1.1.4 Subsidence Inversion 4.1.2 The Diurnal Cycle 4.1.3 Principal Smoke-Plume Models 4.2 The Tall Stack 4.3 Classifying Sources by Method of Emission 4.3.1 A Definition of Tall Stacks 4.3.2 Process Stacks 4.4 Atmospheric-Diffusion Models 4.4.1 Other Uses of Atmospheric-Diffusion Models 4.5 EPA Computer Programs for Regulation of Industry 4.5.1 The Industrial Source Complex Model 4.5.2 Screening Models 4.5.3 The New Models 4.6 The Source–Transport–Receptor Problem 4.6.1 The Source 4.6.2 Transport 4.6.2.1 The Effective Emission Height 4.6.2.2 Bulk Transport of the Pollutants 4.6.2.3 Dispersion of the Pollutants 4.6.3 The Receptor References Chapter 5 Source Testing 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Code of Federal Regulations 5.3 Representative Sampling Techniques 5.3.1 Gaseous Pollutants 5.3.2 Velocity and Particulate Traverses 5.3.3 Isokinetic Sampling References Chapter 6 Ambient Air Quality and Continuous Emissions Monitoring 6.1 Ambient Air Quality Sampling Program 6.2 Objectives of a Sampling Program 6.3 Monitoring Systems 6.3.1 Fixed vs. Mobile Sampling 6.3.2 Continuous vs. Integrated Sampling 6.3.3 Selection of Instrumentation and Methods 6.4 Federal Reference Methods and Continuous Monitoring 6.5 The “Complete” Environmental Surveillance and Control System 6.6 Typical Air Sampling Train 6.7 Integrated Sampling Devices for Suspended Particulate Matter 6.8 Continuous Air Quality Monitors 6.8.1 Electroconductivity Analyzer for SO 2 6.8.2 Coulometric Analyzer for SO 2 6.8.3 Nondispersive Infrared Method for CO 6.8.4 Flame Photometric Detection of Total Sulfur and SO 2 6.8.5 Hydrocarbons by Flame Ionization 6.8.6 Fluorescent SO 2 Monitor 6.8.7 Chemilumenescence for Detection of Ozone and Nitrogen Oxides 6.8.8 Calibration of Continuous Monitors 6.8.8.1 Specifications for Continuous Air-Quality Monitors 6.8.8.2 Steady-State Calibrations References Chapter 7 Cost Estimating 7.1 Time Value of Money 7.1.1 Annualized Capital Cost 7.1.2 Escalation Factors 7.2 Types of Cost Estimates 7.3 Air Pollution Control Equipment Cost 7.3.1 OAQPS Control Cost Manual 7.3.2 Other Cost-Estimating Resources References Chapter 8 Process Design and the Strategy of Process Design 8.1 Introduction to Process Design 8.2 The Strategy of Process Design 8.2.1 Process Flowsheets 8.3 Mass and Energy Balances 8.3.1 A Mass-Balance Example 8.3.2 An Energy-Balance Example References Chapter 9 Profitability and Engineering Economics 9.1 Introduction — Profit Goal 9.2 Profitability Analysis 9.2.1 Mathematical Methods for Profitability Evaluation 9.2.2 Incremental Rate of Return on Investments as a Measure of Profitability 9.2.2.1 An Example 9.3 The Effect of Depreciation 9.3.1 An Example 9.4 Capital Investment and Total Product Cost 9.4.1 Design Development References Chapter 10 Introduction to Control of Gaseous Pollutants 10.1 Absorption and Adsorption 10.1.1 Fluid Mechanics Terminology 10.1.2 Removal of HAP and VOC by Absorption and Adsorption Reference Chapter 11 Absorption for HAP and VOC Control 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Aqueous Systems 11.3 Nonaqueous Systems 11.4 Types and Arrangements of Absorption Equipment 11.5 Design Techniques for Countercurrent Absorption Columns 11.5.1 Equilibrium Relationships 11.5.2 Ideal Solutions — Henry’s Law 11.5.3 Countercurrent Absorption Tower Design Equations 11.5.4 Origin of Volume-Based Mass-Transfer Coefficients 11.5.4.1 Steady-State Molecular Diffusion 11.5.5 The Whitman Two-Film Theory 11.5.6 Overall Mass-Transfer Coefficients 11.5.7 Volume-Based Mass-Transfer Coefficients 11.5.8 Determining Height of Packing in the Tower: the HTU Method 11.5.9 Dilute Solution Case 11.6 Countercurrent Flow Packed Absorption Tower Design 11.6.1 General Considerations 11.6.2 Operations of Packed Towers 11.6.3 Choosing a Tower Packing 11.6.3.1 Dumped Packings 11.6.4 Packed Tower Internals 11.6.5 Choosing a Liquid–Gas Flow Ratio 11.6.6 Determining Tower Diameter — Random Dumped Packing 11.6.7 Determining Tower Diameter — Structured Packing 11.6.8 Controlling Film Concept 11.6.9 A Correlation for the Effect of L/G Ratio on the Packing Height 11.6.10 Henry’s Law Constants and Mass-Transfer Information 11.6.11 Using Henry’s Law for Multicomponent Solutions 11.7 Sample Design Calculation 11.7.1 Flooding 11.7.2 Structured Packing References Chapter 12 Adsorption for HAP and VOC Control 12.1 Introduction to Adsorption Operations 12.2 Adsorption Phenomenon 12.3 Adsorption Processes 12.3.1 Stagewise Process 12.3.2 Continuous Contact, Steady-State, Moving-Bed Adsorbers 12.3.3 Unsteady-State, Fixed-Bed Adsorbers 12.3.4 Newer Technologies 12.3.4.1 Rotary Wheel Adsorber 12.3.4.2 Chromatographic Adsorption 12.3.4.3 Pressure Swing Adsorption 12.4 Nature of Adsorbents 12.4.1 Adsorption Design with Activated Carbon 12.4.1.1 Pore Structure 12.4.1.2 Effect of Relative Humidity 12.5 The Theories of Adsorption 12.6 The Data of Adsorption 12.7 Adsorption Isotherms 12.7.1 Freundlich’s Equation 12.7.2 Langmuir’s Equation 12.7.3 The Brunner, Emmett, Teller, or BET, Isotherm 12.7.3.1 Adsorption without Capillary Condensation 12.7.3.2 Adsorption with Capillary Condensation 12.8 Polanyi Potential Theory 12.9 Unsteady-State, Fixed-Bed Adsorbers 12.10 Fixed-Bed Adsorber Design Considerations 12.10.1 Safety Considerations 12.11 Pressure Drop Through Adsorbers 12.12 Adsorber Effectiveness and Regeneration 12.12.1 Steam Regeneration 12.12.2 Hot Air or Gas Regeneration 12.13 Breakthrough Model 12.13.1 Mass Transfer 12.13.2 Breakthrough Curve Example 12.14 Regeneration Modeling References Chapter 13 Thermal Oxidation for VOC Control 13.1 Combustion Basics 13.2 Flares 13.2.1 Elevated, Open Flare 13.2.2 Smokeless Flare Assist 13.2.3 Flare Height 13.2.4 Ground Flare 13.2.5 Safety Features 13.3 Incineration 13.3.1 Recuperative Thermal Oxidizer 13.3.2 Regenerative Thermal Oxidizer 13.3.3 Recuperative vs. Regenerative Design Selection 13.4 Catalytic Oxidation References Chapter 14 Control of VOC and HAP by Condensation 14.1 Introduction 14.2 VOC Condensers 14.2.1 Contact Condensers 14.2.2 Surface Condensers 14.2.2.1 An Example — Condensation Temperature 14.3 Coolant and Heat Exchanger Type 14.3.1 An Example — Heat Exchanger Area and Coolant Flow Rate 14.4 Mixtures of Organic Vapors 14.4.1 An Example — Condensation of a Binary Mixture 14.5 Air As a Noncondensable References Appendix A: Derivation of the Area Model for a Mixture Condensing from a Gas Appendix B: Algorithm for the Area Model for a Mixture Condensing from a Gas Chapter 15 Control of VOC and HAP by Biofiltration 15.1 Introduction 15.2 Theory of Biofilter Operation 15.3 Design Parameters and Conditions 15.3.1 Depth and Media of Biofilter Bed 15.3.2 Microorganisms 15.3.3 Oxygen Supply 15.3.4 Inorganic Nutrient Supply 15.3.5 Moisture Content 15.3.6 Temperature 15.3.7 pH of the Biofilter 15.3.8 Loading and Removal Rates 15.3.9 Pressure Drop 15.3.10 Pretreatment of Gas Streams 15.4 Biofilter Compared to Other Available Control Technology 15.5 Successful Case Studies 15.6 Further Considerations References Chapter 16 Membrane Separation 16.1 Overview 16.2 Polymeric Membranes 16.3 Performance 16.4 Applications References Chapter 17 NO x Control 17.1 NO x from Combustion 17.1.1 Thermal NO x 17.1.2 Prompt NO x 17.1.3 Fuel NO x 17.2 Control Techniques 17.2.1 Combustion Control Techniques 17.2.1.1 Low-Excess Air Firing 17.2.1.2 Overfire Air 17.2.1.3 Flue Gas Recirculation 17.2.1.4 Reduce Air Preheat 17.2.1.5 Reduce Firing Rate 17.2.1.6 Water/Steam Injection 17.2.1.7 Burners out of Service (BOOS) 17.2.1.8 Reburn 17.2.1.9 Low-NO x Burners 17.2.1.10 Ultra Low-NO x Burners 17.2.2 Flue Gas Treatment Techniques 17.2.2.1 Selective Noncatalytic Reduction (SNCR) 17.2.2.2 Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) 17.2.2.3 Low-Temperature Oxidation with Absorption 17.2.2.4 Catalytic Absorption 17.2.2.5 Corona-Induced Plasma References Chapter 18 Control Of SO x 18.1 H 2 S Control 18.2 SO 2 (and HCl) Removal 18.2.1 Reagents 18.2.1.1 Calcium-Based Reactions 18.2.1.2 Calcium-Based Reaction Products 18.2.1.3 Sodium-Based Reactions 18.2.1.4 Sodium-Based Reaction Products 18.2.2 Capital vs. Operating Costs 18.2.2.1 Operating Costs 18.2.3 SO 2 Removal Processes 18.2.3.1 Wet Limestone 18.2.3.2 Wet Soda Ash or Caustic Soda 18.2.3.3 Lime Spray Drying 18.2.3.4 Circulating Lime Reactor 18.2.3.5 Sodium Bicarbonate/Sodium Sesquicarbonate Injection 18.2.3.6 Other SO 2 Removal Processes 18.2.4 Example Evaluation 18.3 SO 3 and Sulfuric Acid 18.3.1 SO 3 and H 2 SO 4 Formation 18.3.2 Toxic Release Inventory References Chapter 19 Fundamentals of Particulate Control 19.1 Particle-Size Distribution 19.2 Aerodynamic Diameter 19.3 Cunningham Slip Correction 19.4 Collection Mechanisms 19.4.1 Basic Mechanisms: Impaction, Interception, Diffusion 19.4.1.1 Impaction 19.4.1.2 Interception 19.4.1.3 Diffusion 19.4.2 Other Mechanisms 19.4.2.1 Electrostatic Attraction 19.4.2.2 Gravity 19.4.2.3 Centrifugal Force 19.4.2.4 Thermophoresis 19.4.2.5 Diffusiophoresis References Chapter 20 Hood and Ductwork Design 20.1 Introduction 20.2 Hood Design 20.2.1 Flow Relationship for the Various Types of Hoods 20.2.1.1 Enclosing Hoods 20.2.1.2 Rectangular or Round Hoods 20.2.1.3 Slot Hoods 20.2.1.4 Canopy Hoods 20.3 Duct Design 20.3.1 Selection of Minimum Duct Velocity 20.3.2 The Mechanical Energy Balance 20.3.2.1 Velocity Head 20.3.2.2 Friction Head 20.4 Effect of Entrance into a Hood 20.5 Total Energy Loss 20.6 Fan Power 20.7 Hood-Duct Example References Chapter 21 Cyclone Design 21.1 Collection Efficiency 21.1.1 Factors Affecting Collection Efficiency 21.1.2 Theoretical Collection Efficiency 21.1.3 Lapple’s Efficiency Correlation 21.1.4 Leith and Licht Efficiency Model 21.1.5 Comparison of Efficiency Model Results 21.2 Pressure Drop 21.3 Saltation References Chapter 22 Design and Application of Wet Scrubbers 22.1 Introduction 22.2 Collection Mechanisms and Efficiency 22.3 Collection Mechanisms and Particle Size 22.4 Selection and Design of Scrubbers 22.5 Devices for Wet Scrubbing 22.6 The Semrau Principle and Collection Efficiency 22.7 A Model for Counter-Current Spray Scrubbers 22.7.1 Application to a Spray Tower 22.8 A Model for Venturi Scrubbers 22.9 The Calvert Cut Diameter Design Technique 22.9.1 An Example Calculation 22.9.2 Second Example Problem 22.10 The Cut-Power Relationship References Additional References Appendix A: Calvert Performance Cut Diameter Data Chapter 23 Filtration and Baghouses 23.1 Introduction 23.2 Design Issues 23.3 Cleaning Mechanisms 23.3.1 Shake/Deflate 23.3.2 Reverse Air 23.3.3 Pulse Jet (High Pressure) 23.3.4 Pulse Jet (Low Pressure) 23.3.5 Sonic Horns 23.4 Fabric Properties 23.4.1 Woven Bags 23.4.2 Felted Fabric 23.4.3 Surface Treatment 23.4.4 Weight 23.4.5 Membrane Fabrics 23.4.6 Catalytic Membranes 23.4.7 Pleated Cartridges 23.4.8 Ceramic Candles 23.5 Baghouse Size 23.5.1 Air-to-Cloth Ratio 23.5.2 Can Velocity 23.6 Pressure Drop 23.7 Bag Life 23.7.1 Failure Modes 23.7.2 Inlet Design 23.7.3 Startup Seasoning References Chapter 24 Electrostatic Precipitators 24.1 Early Development 24.2 Basic Theory 24.2.1 Corona Formation 24.2.2 Particle Charging 24.2.3 Particle Migration 24.2.4 Deutsch Equation 24.2.4.1 Sneakage 24.2.4.2 Rapping Re-Entrainment 24.2.4.3 Particulate Resistivity 24.2.4.4 Gas-Flow Distribution 24.3 Practical Application of Theory 24.3.1 Effective Migration Velocity 24.3.2 Automatic Voltage Controller 24.4 Flue Gas Conditioning 24.4.1 Humidification 24.4.2 SO 3 24.4.3 Ammonia 24.4.4 SO 3 and Ammonia 24.4.5 Ammonium Sul fate 24.4.6 Proprietary Addi tives 24.5 Using V-I Curves for Troubleshootin g Reference s