Health effects of transport-related air pollution

Contributors ................................................................................................v Acknowledgements ....................................................................................viii Abbreviations ..............................................................................................ix Foreword ......................................................................................................xi Executive summary ....................................................................................xiii Factors determining emissions .........................................................xiii Contribution of traffi c to pollution levels ........................................xiii Human exposure ............................................................................. xiv Studies on health effects ................................................................... xv Introduction ................................................................................................ 1 How to read this report and how it was written ................................... 4 References ......................................................................................... 4 1. Factors determining emissions in the WHO European Region – Alois Krasenbrink, Giorgio Martini, Urban Wass, Edward Jobson, Jens Borken, Reinhard Kuehne, Leonidas Ntziachristos, Zissis Samaras and Menno Keuken ............................................................................. 7 Key points ......................................................................................... 7 Introduction ..................................................................................... 8 Transport patterns ............................................................................. 9 Road transport ................................................................................ 17 Transportation technologies ............................................................ 29 Fuels and additives .......................................................................... 37 References ....................................................................................... 46 2. Contribution of traffi c to levels of ambient air pollution in Europe – Menno Keuken, Eric Sanderson, Roel van Aalst, Jens Borken and Jürgen Schneider ........................................................................ 53 Key points ....................................................................................... 53 Introduction ................................................................................... 54 Traffi c emissions of nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide and VOCs in Europe ................................................................................... 55 Contribution of traffi c emissions to ozone and nitrogen oxides ......... 58 iii Composition of primary traffi c-related PM emissions ...................... 59 Improving air quality by decreasing traffi c emissions ........................ 61 Contribution of traffi c emissions to urban air quality ....................... 63 Contribution of traffi c to PM in urban areas .................................... 67 Concentrations of ozone and nitrogen dioxide in urban areas and streets ................................................................................... 74 Effect of traffi c management on urban air quality ............................. 76 Conclusions and the action needed .................................................. 78 References ....................................................................................... 80 3. Human exposure to transport-related air pollution – Eric Sanderson, David Briggs, Matti Jantunen, Bertil Forsberg, Magnus Svartengren, Radim Šrám John Gulliver and Nicole Janssen ..... 85 Key points ....................................................................................... 85 Introduction ................................................................................... 86 Methods of assessing exposure ......................................................... 87 Exposures in urban versus rural regions ............................................ 90 Exposure of people living near busy traffi c routes .............................. 93 Assessment of traffi c exposure in a variety of microenvironments ... 108 Conclusions .................................................................................. 113 References ..................................................................................... 114 4. Studies on health effects of transport-related air pollution – Joachim Heinrich, Per E. Schwarze, Nikolaos Stilianakis, Isabelle Momas, Sylvia Medina, Annike I. Totlandsdal, Leendert von Bree, Birgit Kuna-Dibbert and Michal Krzyzanowski ................................ 125 Key points ..................................................................................... 125 Introduction ................................................................................. 126 Mortality ...................................................................................... 128 Respiratory morbidity ................................................................... 131 Cardiovascular morbidity .............................................................. 147 Cancer .......................................................................................... 150 Pregnancy outcomes and male fertility ........................................... 155 Intervention studies ....................................................................... 157 Discussion .................................................................................... 161 References ..................................................................................... 165 5. Health risk assessment of transport-related air pollution – Birgit Kuna-Dibbert and Michal Krzyzanowski ................................ 185 Identifi ed health effects .................................................................. 185 Needs for further research .............................................................. 186 Justifi ed action .............................................................................. 188 References ..................................................................................... 189