Concise Encyclopedia of Bioresource Technology

Figures xxv Tables xxix About the Editor xxxiii Contributors xxxv Foreword il R. A. Mashelkar Preface li PART I: ENVIRONMENTAL BIOTECHNOLOGY Advances in Biological Wastewater Treatment 3 Veeriah Jegatheesan C. Visvanathan R. Ben Aïm Introduction 3 Conventional Biological Wastewater Treatment 5 Advanced Wastewater Treatment 7 Nutrients in Wastewater 8 Conclusions 11 Anaerobic Animal-Waste Environments: Salmonella Species Ecology 13 Steven C. Ricke Introduction 13 Salmonella Physiology in the Anaerobic Waste Environment 13 Salmonella Pathogenicity in the Waste Environment 15 Conclusions 17 Biobeneficiation 19 Valentina Umrania A. D. Agate Introduction 19 Possible Mechanisms 19 The Practice 21 Conclusions 22 Biodegradation of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons 23 Rodolfo Canet-Castello Joseph M. Lopez-Real Angus J. Beck Introduction 23 Biodegradation of PAHs by Aerobic Bacteria 24 Biodegradation of PAHs by Anaerobic Bacteria 25 Biodegradation of PAHs by Fungi 27 Biodegradation of PAHs by Algae 28 Conclusions 28 Biofiltration 31 Eldon R. Rene D. Arulneyam T. Swaminathan Introduction 31 History of Biofiltration 32 Process Description 32 Mechanism of Biofiltration 33 Microbial Aspects of Biofiltration 34 Biofilter Media 35 Characteristics of an “Ideal” Biofilter 36 Performance Parameters 37 Advantages and Disadvantages of Biofiltration 38 Commercial Application of Biofilters 39 Conclusions 39 Biological Control of Air Pollution 41 S. N. Upadhyay V. Kumar Introduction 41 Process Description 42 Process Modeling and Design 48 Operation and Maintenance 48 Conclusions 51 Biomethanogenesis 53 Dalel Singh Poonam Nigam Singh Introduction 53 Biomethanation Plants and Digestors 54 Substrates for Biogas Production 56 Microbiology of Biomethanation 58 Biochemistry of Methane Synthesis 60 Conclusions 62 Bioremediation 63 Wan Azlina Ahmad Zainul Akmar Zakaria Introduction 63 Bioremediation Methods 64 Applications of Bioremediation 66 Features of Bioremediation 68 Bioremediation—Success Stories 69 Conclusions 69 Methods for the Biological Treatment of Wastewater 71 Biological Reactors 71 P. K. Mishra B. N. Rai S. N. Upadhyay Principles of Biological Treatment 71 Reaction Kinetics 74 Bioreactors for Wastewater Treatment 76 Conclusions 80 Membrane Bioreactor 82 C. Visvanathan R. Ben Aïm Introduction 82 Membrane Bioreactor Systems 83 Conclusions 91 Rotating Biological Contactors 92 S. N. Upadhyay P. K. Mishra B. N. Rai Introduction 92 Process Modeling 94 Process Design 95 Nitrification and Denitrification 98 Effect of Temperature 100 Conclusions 100 Trickling Filters 102 B. N. Rai P. K. Mishra S. N. Upadhyay Introduction 102 Recirculation 103 Process Microbiology 104 Process Modeling and Design 106 Conclusions 111 Waste Stabilization Ponds 113 P. K. Mishra B. N. Rai S. N. Upadhyay Introduction 113 Classification of Pond Systems 113 Conclusions 121 Microbiologically Influenced Corrosion 123 R. S. Dubey S. N. Upadhyay Introduction 123 Biofouling 125 Microorganisms Associated with Corrosion 126 Mechanism of Microbial Corrosion 129 Control and Monitoring of Microbial Corrosion 129 Conclusions 132 Treatment of Industrial Effluents 135 Distillery Effluent 135 Poonam Nigam Singh Tim Robinson Dalel Singh Introduction 135 Problems Associated with Distillery Effluent 136 Treatment Technologies 137 Bioremediation of Distillery Effluent 140 Recycling Treated Distillery Effluent 141 Conclusions 141 Pulp and Paper Mill Effluent 143 Indu Shekhar Thakur Introduction 143 Procedure of Pulping 144 Bleaching 144 Characteristics of Effluent 144 Problems Related to the Pulp and Paper Industry 145 Environmental Impact of the Pulp and Paper Mill 146 Effluent Treatment in the Pulp and Paper Mill 147 Conclusions 151 Removal of Heavy Metals from Wastewater 152 Wan Azlina Ahmad Jefri Jaapar Mior Ahmad Khushairi Mohd Zahari Introduction 152 Chemical Removal Processes 152 Biological Removal Processes 154 Conclusions 157 Tannery Effluent 158 Indu Shekhar Thakur Introduction 158 Leather Industry—World Scenario 158 Tanning Processes 158 Existing Pollution Problems 159 Impacts of Tannery Effluent 160 Pollution Prevention Opportunities 162 Conclusions 166 Textile and Dye Effluent 167 Haresh Keharia Datta Madamwar Introduction 167 Physicochemical Processes 168 Biological Treatment Processes 169 Conclusions 175 PART II: FOOD BIOTECHNOLOGY Biopolymer Applications 179 Sudip Kumar Rakshit Introduction 179 Starch 179 Cellulose 183 Chitin and Chitosan 184 Other Important Polymers 186 Conclusions 187 Biotransformations of Citrus Flavanone Glycosides 189 Guillermo Ellenrieder Introduction 189 Enzymatic Hydrolysis of Flavanone Glycosides 191 Hydrolysis of the Citrus Flavanone Glycosides 194 Hydrogenation in Basic Medium to Produce Dihydrochalcone Sweeteners 196 Enzymatic Glycosylation and Esterification to Synthesize New Derivatives 197 Fermented Milk Products 201 V. K. Batish Sunita Grover Introduction 201 Yogurt 202 Dahi or Dadhi 203 Leben and Other Related Products 204 Lactic Beverages 207 New Developments in Fermented Milk Products 207 Functional Dairy Foods 208 Fermented Vegetables 211 Didier Montet Gérard Loiseau Nadine Zakhia Introduction 211 Lactic Acid-Fermented Vegetables 211 Nutritional Value of Lactic Acid-Fermented Vegetables 218 Some Recipes 220 Food Additive Production by Fermentation 225 Rekha S. Singhal Pushpa R. Kulkarni Introduction 225 Food Additives of Fermentation Origin 225 Conclusions 235 Food-Grade Yeast Production 237 Argyro Becatorou Costas Psarianos Introduction 237 Yeasts 238 Commercial Food-Grade Yeasts 239 Raw Materials in Food-Grade Yeast Production 241 Stages of Industrial Food-Grade Yeast Production 243 Conclusions 245 Kefir Yeast Technology 247 Matina Iconomopoulou Costas Psarianos Introduction 247 Traditional Production of Kefir Grains 247 Morphology of Kefir Grains 248 Composition of Kefir Grains and Kefirlike Cultures 248 Fermentation and Chemical Composition of the Fermented Product 249 Parameters Affecting the Fermentation 250 Kefir Production 251 Preservation of Kefir Grains 253 Kefir Grains and Kefir As Probiotics 253 Conclusions 254 Molecular Methods for Microbial Detection and Characterization for Food Safety 255 Suresh D. Pillai James M. Totten Introduction 255 Detection 256 Characterization 261 Conclusions 262 Mushroom Production 265 Dan Levanon Ofer Danai Introduction 265 The Mushroom Production Industry: Past and Present 266 Compost-Based Mushroom Production 267 Lignocellulose-Based Mushroom Production 270 Environmental Aspects 273 Conclusions 275 Nutraceutical Production and Use 277 Sudip Kumar Rakshit Introduction 277 Mineral Fortification of Foods 278 Nutraceuticals from Plant Sources 278 Fish, Marine, and Dairy Products 281 Herbal Sources 283 Required Characteristics for Nutraceuticals 283 Consumer Concerns and the Future 284 Prebiotics and Probiotics 285 Sudip Kumar Rakshit Introduction 285 Importance of Probiotics 286 Probiotic Organisms 287 Desirable Characteristics 288 Benefits of Probiotic Consumption 289 Sources of Prebiotics 290 Model Systems 291 Conclusions 291 Single-Cell Protein 293 Chundakkadu Krishna Murray Moo-Young Introduction 293 Need for Microbial Protein Production 294 Sources 294 Substrates 295 Nutritional Aspects of SCP 295 Limitations 297 Factors Affecting SCP Production 297 Commercial Production of SCP 298 Alternative Sources of SCP Production 298 Optimum SCP Production Parameters 300 Toxicity 301 Uses of SCP 303 Socioeconomic Problems and Cost Effectiveness 303 Conclusions 304 Vitamin Production by Fermentation 305 Rekha S. Singhal Pushpa R. Kulkarni Introduction 305 Microbial Production of Vitamins 305 Conclusions 312 Xanthan Gum Production 315 Maria Papagianni Introduction 315 General Properties 316 Xanthan 316 Gellan 317 Dextran 318 Scleroglucan 319 Biosynthetic Mechanisms and Production Kinetics 319 Fermentation 320 Product Recovery 321 PART III: INDUSTRIAL BIOTECHNOLOGY Alcoholic Fermentation 327 Bacterial Alcoholic Fermentation 327 K. Chandraraj P. Gunasekaran Introduction 327 Ethanol by Fermentation 327 Factors Affecting Ethanol Fermentation 328 Kinetics of Ethanol Fermentation 330 Process Improvement 331 Ethanol from Renewable Resources 332 Ethanol As an Automobile Fuel 333 Conclusions 333 Fruit-Based Alcoholic Beverages 335 Vinod K. Joshi Somesh Sharma Shashi Bhushan Devender Attri Quality Factors and Composition of Wines 335 Technology of Fruit Wine Preparation 339 Spoilage of Wine 343 Fruit Brandy: The Technology of Production 343 Conclusions 345 Fuel Ethanol Production from Renewable Biomass Resources 346 James Chukwuma Ogbonna Feedstocks—Introduction 346 Renewable Biomass Materials Used for Ethanol Production 346 Feedstocks—Conclusions 351 Process Strategies—Introduction 353 Processes for Ethanol Production from Sugar Materials 353 Processes for Ethanol Production from Starch and Lignocellulosic Materials 356 Bioreactors 358 Process Strategies—Conclusions 361 Grape-Based Alcoholic Beverages 363 Ronald S. Jackson Introduction 363 Table Wines 363 Sparkling Wines 368 Fortified Wines 369 Brandy 372 Wine Use 374 Malted Barley, Scotch Whiskey, and Beer 376 G. H. Palmer Introduction 376 Malt Production 378 The Malting Process 379 Malt Spirit and Grain Spirit Production 382 Beer Production 386 Conclusions 392 Thermotolerant and Osmotolerant Yeasts for Alcoholic Fermentation 394 L. Venkateswar Rao M. Sridhar Introduction 394 Need for Thermotolerant and Osmotolerant Yeasts in the Ethanol Industry 395 Effect of Temperature on the Growth and Fermentation of Yeasts 396 Media Supplementation for Enhanced Osmotolerance and Thermotolerance 396 Mechanism of Osmotolerance and Thermotolerance 397 Fermentation Abilities of Isolated Osmotolerant and Thermotolerant Yeasts 400 Approaches for Obtaining Novel Thermotolerant and Osmotolerant Yeast Strains with Good Ethanol Yields 401 Conclusions 402 Alkaloids, Aflatoxins, and Other Secondary Metabolites: Production Techniques 403 Javier Barrios-González Araceli Tomasini Francisco J. Fernández Armando Mejía Introduction 403 Alkaloids 403 Aflatoxins 406 Other Secondary Metabolites 408 Conclusions 412 Amino Acid Production 413 K. Madhavan Nampoothiri Introduction 413 Production Strains 413 Commercial Need for and Application of Amino Acids 415 Amino Acid Secretion—Physiology and Metabolic Concept 416 Amino Acid Secretion—Mechanisms and Concepts 419 Other Amino Acids 421 Conclusions 422 Antibiotic Production 423 Javier Barrios-González Araceli Tomasini Francisco J. Fernández Armando Mejía Introduction 423 Secondary Metabolism 424 Regulation 427 Production 429 Genetic Improvement 430 Conclusions 431 Aroma Compound Production 433 Ali Kademi Danielle Leblanc Alain Houde Introduction 433 Production of Aroma Compounds 434 Aroma Compound Biosynthesis Mechanisms 437 Applications of Aroma Compounds 439 Conclusions 442 Bioconversion of Agroindustrial Residues for Bioprocesses 443 Cassava Industry Residues 443 Carlos Ricardo Soccol Ashok Pandey Introduction 443 Microbial Strains Cultivated on Cassava Bagasse 446 Bioprocesses Involving Cassava Bagasse 447 Conclusions 451 Coffee Industry Residues 453 Carlos Ricardo Soccol Ashok Pandey Introduction 453 Industrial Processing of Coffee Cherries 453 Physicochemical Composition of Coffee Pulp and Husk 455 Applications of Coffee Pulp and Husk 455 Conclusions 458 Palm Oil Industry Residues 460 Poonsuk Prasertsan S. Prasertsan Introduction 460 Residues from the Palm Oil Industry 460 Valuable Products from Palm Oil Wastes 461 Conclusions 465 Seafood Industry Residues 466 Poonsuk Prasertsan S. Prasertsan Introduction 466 Residues from the Seafood Industry 466 Valuable Products from Seafood-Processing Residues 466 Conclusions 473 Biodiesel Production and Application 475 Edward Crabbe Ayaaki Ishizaki Introduction 475 Sources of Raw Materials 476 Methods of Manufacture and Factors Affecting Production 477 Properties of Biodiesel versus Petroleum Diesel 478 Potential Technology Development: Biodiesel As a Solvent Extractant for In Situ Biodiesohol Production 479 Biofertilizers: Production, Application, and Quality Control 483 Anil Kumar Tripathi Introduction 483 Biomass Production 485 Formulations 486 Application Methods 489 Inoculant Quality Control 490 Conclusions 492 Biopulping 495 Juan Carlos Villar Luis Jiménez Alcaide Introduction 495 Lignin-Degrading Enzymes 498 Use of Biopulping for the Production of Chemical Pulp 499 Use of Biopulping for the Production of Mechanical Pulp 501 Conclusions 503 Biosurfactant Production and Application 505 Yiannis Kourkoutas Ibrahim M. Banat Introduction 505 Classification 506 Role and Production Mechanisms 508 Factors Affecting Biosurfactant Production 512 Applications of Biosurfactants 513 Conclusions 514 Microbial Enzymes: Production and Applications 517 L-Glutaminase 517 Abdulhameed Sabu Introduction 517 Sources of L-Glutaminase 517 Production of L-Glutaminase 518 Structure of L-Glutaminase 518 Properties 520 Glutaminase Gene 521 Applications of L-Glutaminase 522 Conclusions 524 Inulinases 526 Pushpa R. Kulkarni Rekha S. Singhal Introduction 526 Inulinases: Action and Types 526 Microbial Production of Inulinases 528 Purification of Inulinases 531 Applications of Inulinases 531 Laccase 533 Jerzy Rogalski Andrzej Leonowicz Introduction 533 Activity on Lignocellulose Constituents 535 Conclusions 541 Lignin Peroxidase 543 Carlos G. Dosoretz Gary Ward Yitzhak Hadar Introduction 543 LIP Properties and Production 544 Main Applications of Ligninolytic Enzymes 550 Lipases 552 Ali Kademi Danielle Leblanc Alain Houde Introduction 552 Kinetic Model of Lipolysis 553 Reaction Mechanism 553 Production of Microbial Lipases 554 Industrial Applications of Lipases 556 Conclusions 560 Pectinases 561 Cristóbal Noe Aguilar Juan Carlos Contreras-Esquivel Ernesto Favela-Torres Introduction 561 Substrates of Pectinases 562 Classification of Pectinases 562 Action of Pectinases 564 Production of Pectinases 565 Applications of Pectinases 567 Conclusions 568 Phytases 569 Chundakkadu Krishna Ashok Pandey Ambat Mohandas Introduction 569 Sources of Microbial Phytases 570 Production of Microbial Phytases 572 Molecular Biology and Gene Expression 573 Purification and Properties 575 Conclusions 576 Proteases 578 Rintu Banerjee Introduction 578 Classification of Proteases 578 Production of Proteases 580 Application of Proteases 581 Conclusions 583 Therapeutic Enzymes 585 J. S. Pai Introduction 585 Specific Therapeutic Enzymes 586 Conclusions 590 Xylanases: Production 592 Ufuk Bakir Introduction 592 Xylanase Production 594 Conclusions 599 Xylanases: Properties and Applications 601 Lew Christov Introduction 601 Xylan Structure 601 Xylanase Properties 603 Enzymatic Hydrolysis of Xylan 604 Applications of Xylanases in the Pulp and Paper Industry 604 Conclusions 608 Modified Oligonucleotides 611 Adolfo M. Iribarren Introduction 611 Conjugates 612 Oligonucleotide Analogs 612 DNA Chips 616 Conclusions 616 Organic Acids: Production and Application 617 Citric Acid 617 Carlos Ricardo Soccol Flávera C. Prado Luciana P. S. Vandenberghe Ashok Pandey Introduction 617 Raw Materials Used for Citric Acid Production 617 Microorganisms Used for Citric Acid Production 619 Citric Acid Production Techniques 621 Factors Affecting Citric Acid Production 623 Product Recovery 627 Gallic Acid 629 Rintu Banerjee Introduction 629 Classification of Tannins 629 Production of Gallic Acid 630 Properties and Applications of Gallic Acid 633 Conclusions 634 Lactic Acid 635 Hwa-Won Ryu Jong-Sun Yun Young-Jung Wee Introduction 635 Production Technologies 636 Uses and Applications 640 Conclusions 642 Pigment Production 645 Kishor S. Wani Bhushan S. Naphade Bhushan L. Chaudhari Sudhir B. Chincholkar Introduction 645 Plant Pigments 646 Microbial Pigments 648 Legislation Involved in the Use of Microbial Pigments 651 Present Status of Microbial Pigments 651 Conclusions 651 Polyhydroxyalkanoate Production from Renewable Resources 653 Irene K. P. Tan Introduction 653 Plastic Degradation 654 Biocompatibility 655 Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) 655 Conclusions 661 Pretreatment of Lignocellulosic Substrates 663 Poonam Nigam Singh Tim Robinson Dalel Singh Introduction 663 Physical Pretreatment 664 Chemical Pretreatment 666 Biological Pretreatment 668 Conclusions 670 Recycling Agricultural By-Products and Residues for Animal Feeding 671 Zwi G. Weinberg Introduction 671 Crop Residues 673 By-Products 674 Conclusions 677 Solid-State Fermentation for Bioconversion of Biomass 679 Design of Bioreactors for Solid-State Fermentation 679 Matt Hardin Introduction 679 Design Considerations 679 Reactor Types 681 Conclusions 688 Engineering Aspects of Solid-State Fermentation 690 Mario Fernández-Fernández Ricardo Pérez-Correa Eduardo Agosin Introduction 690 Bioreactors and Modeling 691 Standard Instrumentation 691 Advanced Instrumentation 694 Process Control 695 Conclusions 699 General Aspects of Solid-State Fermentation 702 Ashok Pandey Febe Francis Abdulhameed Sabu Carlos Ricardo Soccol Introduction 702 Characteristics of SSF 703 Advantages and Disadvantages of SSF 703 Factors That Influence SSF 704 Substrates for SSF 707 Conclusions 708 Modeling in Solid-State Fermentation 709 David A. Mitchell Oscar F. von Meien Nadia Krieger Introduction 709 Bioreactor Models 709 Models of Particle-Scale Phenomena 714 Conclusions 717 Xylitol Production from Hemicellulosic Substrates 719 Poonam Nigam Singh Tim Robinson Dalel Singh Introduction 719 Production of Xylitol 720 Xylitol Production Pathways 722 Optimizing Xylitol Production 724 Conclusions 726 Index 729