Slip and fall prevention : a practical handbook

Contents Chapter 1 Physical Evaluation..............................................................................1 1.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................1 1.2 Expectation.......................................................................................................1 1.3 Distractions.......................................................................................................1 1.4 Level Walkway Surfaces..................................................................................2 1.4.1 Sidewalks..............................................................................................2 1.4.2 Curbing.................................................................................................2 1.4.3 Curb CutOuts .......................................................................................4 1.4.4 Other Walkway Impediments...............................................................6 1.4.4.1 Access Covers.......................................................................6 1.4.4.2 Drainage Grates ....................................................................6 1.4.4.3 Posts ......................................................................................7 1.4.4.4 Bicycle Racks .......................................................................7 1.4.4.5 Planters, Trash Receptacles, and Similar Furnishings .........8 1.4.4.6 Architectural Designs ...........................................................9 1.4.4.7 Sprinkler Heads, Doorstops, and Other Small Trip Hazards..........................................................................9 1.4.4.8 Temporary Fixes ...................................................................9 1.5 Level Walkway Surfaces and Water ................................................................9 1.6 Parking Areas .................................................................................................10 1.6.1 Tire Stops ...........................................................................................11 1.6.2 Speed Bumps......................................................................................13 1.7 Changes in Levels ..........................................................................................16 1.8 Stairs...............................................................................................................16 1.8.1 Stair Design........................................................................................17 1.8.2 Stair Landings ....................................................................................17 1.9 Handrails ........................................................................................................19 1.9.1 Graspability ........................................................................................19 1.9.2 Supports..............................................................................................20 1.10 Guards (or Guardrails) ...................................................................................20 1.11 Ramps.............................................................................................................22 1.11.1 Ramp Design......................................................................................22 1.11.2 Ramp Landings ..................................................................................24 1.12 Floor Mats/Entrances and Exits.....................................................................24 1.12.1 General Precautions ...........................................................................24 1.12.2 Minimizing Contaminants..................................................................25 1.12.3 Mat Design.........................................................................................25 1.12.4 Mat Design and Arrangement............................................................26 1.12.5 Mat Storage ........................................................................................27 1.12.6 Mat Size .............................................................................................27 1.12.7 Protection of Hard Flooring Surfaces................................................27 1.12.8 Mat Cleaning Guidelines ...................................................................28 1.13 Bathrooms ......................................................................................................28 1.14 Elevators .........................................................................................................29 1.15 Escalators .......................................................................................................29 1.16 Carpet .............................................................................................................31 1.17 Accessibility ...................................................................................................32 1.18 Signage ...........................................................................................................32 1.19 Reference Standards.......................................................................................33 1.19.1 NFPA International (formerly National Fire Protection Association) ......................................................................33 1.19.1.1 NFPA 101 Life Safety Code (2000) ..................................34 1.19.2 ASTM International (Formerly American Society of Testing and Materials) ....................................................................................34 1.19.2.1 ASTM F1637 Practice for Safe Walking Surfaces ............34 1.19.3 American National Standards Institute (ANSI) ................................35 1.19.3.1 ICC/A117.1.........................................................................35 1.19.4 Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) ................35 1.19.4.1 1910, Subpart D — Workplace Walking and Working Surfaces.........................................................35 1.19.5 Model Building Codes (IBC, BOCA, NBC, SBC, UBC) ................35 1.19.6 ASME International (formerly American Society of Mechanical Engineers) ..................................................................36 Chapter 2 Management Controls ........................................................................41 2.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................41 2.2 Engineering Precept .......................................................................................41 2.3 Behavioral Safety and Pedestrian Traffic Flow.............................................41 2.3.1 Natural Paths/Observation .................................................................42 2.3.2 Adapt or Adopt...................................................................................42 2.4 Inspection and Maintenance Programs..........................................................43 2.5 Self-Inspection Programs...............................................................................43 2.6 Spill and Wet Program...................................................................................44 2.7 Recommended Practices for Snow Removal .................................................45 2.7.1 Objectives ...........................................................................................45 2.7.2 Personnel and Responsibilities ..........................................................45 2.7.2.1 Facility Manager.................................................................45 2.7.2.2 Custodians...........................................................................45 2.7.2.3 Grounds Maintenance Staff ................................................46 2.7.2.4 Contracted Snow Removal .................................................46 2.7.3 Guidelines for Removal .....................................................................46 2.7.4 Priorities for Removal........................................................................46 2.7.5 Snow Storage .....................................................................................47 2.8 Lighting ..........................................................................................................47 2.8.1 Light Sources .....................................................................................48 2.8.1.1 Mercury Vapor ....................................................................48 2.8.1.2 Metal Halide .......................................................................48 2.8.1.3 High Pressure Sodium (HPS).............................................49 2.8.2 Lighting Levels — Safety Only ........................................................49 2.8.3 Lighting Levels — Categories...........................................................50 2.8.4 Lighting Transitions ...........................................................................51 2.8.5 Maintenance .......................................................................................51 2.9 Contractual Risk Transfer ..............................................................................52 2.9.1 General Administrative Measures......................................................52 2.9.2 Specific Control Measures .................................................................53 2.9.3 Fundamental Guidelines ....................................................................53 2.10 Construction, Renovation, and Special Event Planning................................54 2.11 Loss Analysis .................................................................................................54 2.11.1 Tracking Exposure .............................................................................54 2.11.2 Gathering the Data .............................................................................55 2.11.3 Developing Solutions .........................................................................55 Chapter 3 Principles of Slip Resistance .............................................................59 3.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................59 3.2 Principles of Friction .....................................................................................59 3.3 Slip Resistance Defined .................................................................................60 3.4 Slip Resistance Factors ..................................................................................61 3.5 Slip Resistance Scale .....................................................................................62 3.6 Surface Roughness.........................................................................................63 3.6.1 Height or Sharpness ...........................................................................63 3.6.2 Liquid Dispersion...............................................................................64 3.6.3 Assessing Roughness .........................................................................64 3.7 Wet Surfaces...................................................................................................64 3.7.1 Hydroplaning......................................................................................65 3.7.2 Sticktion .............................................................................................65 3.8 Classes of Tribometers...................................................................................65 3.8.1 Horizontal Pull (Dragsled).................................................................66 3.8.2 Pendulum............................................................................................66 3.8.3 Articulated Strut.................................................................................66 3.9 Hunter Machine..............................................................................................66 Chapter 4 ASTM Standards Related to Pedestrian Safety.................................69 4.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................69 4.2 ASTM International (Formerly American Society for Testing and Materials) ................................................................................................69 4.3 Technical Committee ASTM F-13 ................................................................70 4.4 F489 Standard Test Method for Using a James Machine.............................70 4.5 F609 Standard Test Method for Using a Horizontal Pull Slipmeter (HPS).... 74 4.6 F1678 Standard Test Method for Using a Portable Articulated Strut Slip Tester (PAST) ................................................................................75 4.7 F1677 Standard Test Method for Using a Portable Inclinable Articulated Strut Slip Tester (PIAST) ...........................................................77 4.8 F1679 Standard Test Method for Using a Variable Incidence Tribometer (VIT) ...........................................................................................79 4.9 Test Pad Material ...........................................................................................81 4.9.1 Leather................................................................................................81 4.9.2 Neolite® Test Liner ...........................................................................82 4.9.3 Rubbers and Other Footwear Materials.............................................83 4.9.3.1 Neoprene .............................................................................83 4.9.3.2 4S ........................................................................................83 4.9.3.3 TRRL ..................................................................................84 4.9.4 Actual Footwear Bottoms ..................................................................84 4.10 Other ASTM F13 Standards ..........................................................................84 4.10.1 ASTM F695 .......................................................................................84 4.10.2 ASTM F1240 .....................................................................................84 4.10.3 ASTM F1637 .....................................................................................85 4.10.4 ASTM F1646 .....................................................................................85 4.10.5 ASTM F1646 .....................................................................................85 4.10.6 ASTM F1646 .....................................................................................85 4.10.7 ASTM F2048 .....................................................................................85 4.11 Other ASTM Committees with Pedestrian Traction Activities.....................85 4.11.1 Committee D21 Polishes ...................................................................86 4.11.1.1 D2047..................................................................................86 4.11.1.2 D3758..................................................................................87 4.11.2 D01 Paint and Related Coatings, Materials, and Applications .........87 4.11.2.1 D5859..................................................................................87 4.11.3 F15 Consumer Products.....................................................................87 4.11.3.1 F462 ....................................................................................88 4.11.4 C21 Ceramic Whitewares and Related Products...............................88 4.11.4.1 C1028..................................................................................89 4.11.5 Summary ............................................................................................91 4.12 A Work in Progress: The ASTM “Gold” Standard .......................................91 4.13 Other Groundbreaking Research ...................................................................93 Chapter 5 Other U.S. Standards and Guidelines ................................................97 5.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................97 5.2 Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) ............................97 5.2.1 Section 1910.22 General Requirements ............................................97 5.2.2 Manlifts 1910.68(c)(3)(v) ..................................................................98 5.2.3 1926 Subpart R — Steel Erection Regulatory (3) ............................98 5.3 Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA)........................................................99 5.3.1 A4.5 Ground and Floor Surfaces/A4.5.1 General.............................99 5.4 Access Board Recommendations.................................................................100 5.5 Federal Specifications ..................................................................................100 5.5.1 RR-G-1602D ....................................................................................100 5.6 U.S. Military Specifications (Navy) ............................................................101 5.6.1 MIL-D-23003A(SH) ........................................................................101 5.6.2 MIL-D-24483A ................................................................................101 5.6.3 MIL-D-0016680C (Ships) and MIL-D-18873B..............................101 5.6.4 MIL-D-3134J ...................................................................................101 5.6.5 MIL-D-17951C (Ships)....................................................................101 5.6.6 MIL-W-5044C..................................................................................101 5.7 NFPA International (Formerly National Fire Protection Association) .......102 5.7.1 NFPA 1901.......................................................................................102 5.7.2 NFPA 101/5000................................................................................102 5.8 American National Standards Institute (ANSI)...........................................102 5.8.1 A1264.2-2001...................................................................................103 5.8.2 A137.1-1988.....................................................................................104 5.9 Underwriters Laboratories ...........................................................................104 5.9.1 UL 410 .............................................................................................104 5.10 Model Building Codes.................................................................................106 5.11 Obsolete Standards.......................................................................................106 5.11.1 Federal Test Method Standard 501a, Method 7121 ........................106 5.11.2 U.S. General Services Administration Specification P-F-430C(1) .107 5.11.3 ASTM D4518-91 .............................................................................107 5.11.4 ASTM D-21 Gray Pages..................................................................107 5.12 U.S.-Based Industry Associations Involved with Slip Resistance ..............108 5.12.1 Ceramic Tile Institute of America (CTIOA) ...................................108 5.12.2 Consumer Specialty Products Association (CSPA).........................108 5.12.3 Resilient Floor Covering Institute (RFCI).......................................109 5.12.4 Footwear Industries of America (FIA) ............................................110 5.12.5 Contact Group on Slips, Trips, and Falls (CGSTF)........................110 5.12.6 National Safety Council (NSC) .......................................................110 5.12.7 American Academy of Forensic Sciences (AAFS).........................111 Chapter 6 Flooring and Tribometry..................................................................123 6.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................123 6.2 The Threshold of Safety ..............................................................................123 6.3 Uses for Tribometers....................................................................................124 6.3.1 Problem Identification — Prevention ..............................................124 6.3.2 Little or No Prior History ................................................................124 6.3.3 Claims Defense/Documentation ......................................................124 6.3.4 Accident Investigation......................................................................124 6.3.5 Assessment of Floor Treatment/Cleaning Products and Methods ..124 6.4 Operator Qualifications of Competency ......................................................125 6.5 Equipment Calibration and Maintenance ....................................................125 6.6 Identifying Types of Flooring and Their Properties ....................................126 6.6.1 Resilient Flooring.............................................................................126 6.6.2 Non-Resilient Flooring ....................................................................127 6.7 Floor Finishes and Their Properties ............................................................129 6.7.1 Conventional Floor Finishes ............................................................129 6.7.2 “Slip Resistant” Floor Coatings.......................................................130 6.7.3 Surface Grooving and Texturing......................................................130 6.7.4 Etching .............................................................................................131 6.7.5 Other “Slip Resistant” Floor Treatments.........................................131 6.8 The Impact of Wear .....................................................................................131 6.9 Cleaning Methods ........................................................................................132 6.9.1 Types of Floor Cleaners...................................................................132 6.9.2 Floor Finish Condition Indicators ...................................................132 6.9.3 Mopping Issues ................................................................................133 6.9.4 Common Cleaning Scenario ............................................................133 6.9.5 Agitation...........................................................................................134 6.9.6 Porous and Sealed Floor Surfaces ...................................................134 6.9.7 Texturing ..........................................................................................134 6.9.8 Other Maintenance Issues................................................................135 6.10 Maintenance and Condition of Floor Care Equipment...............................135 6.10.1 Preventative Maintenance Check for Floor Machines ....................136 6.11 Floor Treatment Study .................................................................................137 Chapter 7 Footwear...........................................................................................153 7.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................153 7.2 Footwear Design for Slip Resistance ..........................................................153 7.2.1 Sole Compounds ..............................................................................153 7.2.2 Tread Patterns...................................................................................154 7.2.3 General Guidelines for Shoe Design and Selection........................154 7.3 Labeling........................................................................................................155 7.3.1 Labeling for Usage...........................................................................155 7.3.2 Labeling for Slip Resistance Testing...............................................156 7.4 Advertising ...................................................................................................156 7.5 Other Selection Guidelines ..........................................................................157 7.6 Other Protective Features.............................................................................157 7.7 Maintenance .................................................................................................158 7.7.1 Keeping Clean..................................................................................158 7.7.2 Wear/Replacement............................................................................158 7.8 Footwear Programs ......................................................................................158 7.8.1 Mandate or Recommend..................................................................158 7.8.2 Purchase Options..............................................................................158 7.8.3 Enforcement .....................................................................................159 7.9 Federal Specification — USPS No. 89C.....................................................159 7.10 International Footwear Standards for Slip Resistance ................................159 7.10.1 ISO ...................................................................................................160 7.10.1.1 ISO/TR 11220: 1993 ........................................................160 7.10.1.2 ISO/AWI 20878 ................................................................160 7.10.1.3 EUROPEAN (CEN) .........................................................160 7.10.1.4 GERMAN — DIN 4843–100 ..........................................160 7.10.1.5 BRITISH — DD 13287/EN 13287..................................160 Chapter 8 Overseas Slip Resistance Standards ................................................161 8.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................161 8.2 Slip and Fall Statistics Overseas .................................................................161 8.3 Overseas Standard Development .................................................................162 8.4 Ramp Tests ...................................................................................................163 8.5 Pendulum Testers .........................................................................................165 8.6 Digitized Dragsleds......................................................................................167 8.7 Other Dragsleds............................................................................................169 8.8 Portable Friction Tester................................................................................170 8.9 International Standards ................................................................................171 8.9.1 European Standards..........................................................................171 8.9.1.1 About CEN .......................................................................171 8.9.1.2 CEN Standards Process ....................................................171 8.9.1.3 CEN Slip Resistance Standards and Drafts .....................172 8.9.2 German Standards ............................................................................173 8.9.2.1 DIN 18032 P2...................................................................173 8.9.2.2 DIN 51 097.......................................................................174 8.9.2.3 DIN 51 130.......................................................................174 8.9.2.4 DIN 51 131.......................................................................174 8.9.3 British Standards ..............................................................................175 8.9.3.1 Committee B/556..............................................................175 8.9.3.2 Committee B/208..............................................................176 8.9.3.3 Committee B/545..............................................................176 8.9.3.4 Committee B/539..............................................................176 8.9.3.5 Committee PRI/60 ............................................................176 8.9.4 Swedish Standards ...........................................................................176 8.9.4.1 SS 92 35 15 ......................................................................177 8.9.5 Australia/New Zealand Standards....................................................177 8.9.5.1 The Standards Process......................................................177 8.9.5.2 Australian Standards.........................................................178 8.9.6 Canadian Standards..........................................................................179 8.9.6.1 CAN2-75.1-M77...............................................................180 8.9.6.2 25.1 NO.30.1-95-CAN/CCSB ..........................................180 8.9.7 Italian Standards...............................................................................180 8.9.7.1 DM 14 Guigno 1989 n. 236.............................................180 8.9.8 International Organization For Standardization (ISO) ....................180 8.9.8.1 ISO Standards Process......................................................181 8.9.8.2 ISO Concerns....................................................................181 8.9.8.3 ISO Slip Resistance Related Standards............................182 8.10 Overseas Organizations Involved in Slip Resistance...................................182 8.10.1 The U.K. Slip Resistance Research Group .....................................182 8.10.2 SATRA Footwear Technology Center, Ltd. ....................................183 8.10.3 Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization (CSIRO)......................................................................183 8.10.4 INRS National Research and Safety Institute .................................184 8.10.5 WFK Research Institute for Cleaning Technology .........................185 8.10.6 Berufsgenossenschaftliches Institut fur Arbeitssicherheit (BIA) ....185 8.10.7 Finnish Institute of Occupational Health (FIOH) ...........................185 8.10.8 National Occupational Health and Safety Commission (NOHSC) 185 8.10.9 International Association of Athletics Federations (IAAF).............186 Chapter 9 Profiles of Selected Industries .........................................................201 9.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................201 9.2 All Occupancies ...........................................................................................201 9.2.1 Exterior Controls..............................................................................201 9.2.2 Interior Controls...............................................................................201 9.3 Restaurants ...................................................................................................202 9.4 Hospitality (Lodging)...................................................................................203 9.5 Health Care ..................................................................................................203 9.5.1 Interior Facility Controls — Residents ...........................................204 9.5.2 Interior Facility Controls — Staff ...................................................205 9.6 Mercantile.....................................................................................................205 9.7 Trucking Industry.........................................................................................206 Chapter 10 Accident Investigation and Mitigation ............................................217 10.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................217 10.2 Pitfalls of Accident Reporting and Investigation.........................................217 10.3 Theories of Liability ......................................