Natural colorants for food and nutraceutical uses

Chapter 1 Colorants: From the Physical Phenomenon to Their Nutraceutical Properties — An Overview.............................1 Chapter 2 The Color Phenomenon .......................................................................7 A. Definition ............................................................................................................7 B. Human Perception ............................................................................................11 C. Measurement.....................................................................................................13 1. Instrumental Color Measurement..............................................................14 2. The CIE System ........................................................................................15 3. Opponent-Type Systems............................................................................24 References................................................................................................................26 Chapter 3 Pigments .............................................................................................27 A. Definition ..........................................................................................................27 B. A World of Colorless Compounds...................................................................27 C. Pigments in Biology.........................................................................................29 D. Molecular Affinities of Pigments .....................................................................29 E. Natural Distribution of Pigments .....................................................................30 F. Classification of Food Colors...........................................................................32 G. Choice and Application of Colors....................................................................32 References................................................................................................................34 Chapter 4 Pigments as Food Colorants ..............................................................35 A. Colorants as Food Additives ............................................................................35 1. Reasons to Use Color Additives ...............................................................35 2. Importance of Natural Colorants ..............................................................35 B. Safety of Food Colorants .................................................................................37 1. Aspects of Legal Regulation of Color Additives .....................................37 2. Basic Toxicology of Colorant Additives...................................................42 3. Toxicology of Certifiable Colorants .........................................................53 4. Toxicology of Exempt-from-Certification Colorants................................56 References................................................................................................................59 Chapter 5 Inorganic and Synthetic Pigments — History, Sources, and Uses .............................................................................................63 A. Inorganic ...........................................................................................................63 B. Synthetic ...........................................................................................................70 1. General Information ..................................................................................70 2. Reactions in the Production of Pigments .................................................72 3. Blends of Synthetic Colorants ..................................................................85 4. Color Stability ...........................................................................................85 5. Dye Presentation .......................................................................................86 6. Lakes..........................................................................................................87 C. Analytical Techniques and the Evaluation of Color Purity.............................90 References................................................................................................................91 Chapter 6 Natural Pigments — Global Perspective...........................................93 A. Distribution .......................................................................................................93 1. Tetrapyrrole Derivatives ............................................................................93 2. Isoprenoid Derivatives...............................................................................95 3. N -Heterocyclic Compounds Other Than Tetrapyrroles ............................97 4. Benzopyran Derivatives ............................................................................98 5. Quinones....................................................................................................99 6. Melanins ..................................................................................................100 B. Functions.........................................................................................................102 1. Tetrapyrrole Derivatives ..........................................................................102 2. N -Heterocyclic Compounds Other Than Tetrapyrroles ..........................104 3. Benzopyran Derivatives ..........................................................................105 4. Quinones..................................................................................................107 5. Iridoids.....................................................................................................108 6. Melanins ..................................................................................................108 References..............................................................................................................109 Chapter 7 Carotenoids.......................................................................................113 A. Definition ........................................................................................................113 B. Classification and Nomenclature....................................................................113 C. Distribution .....................................................................................................113 D. Biosynthesis: Biochemistry and Molecular Biology .....................................118 1. Biochemistry............................................................................................118 2. Biosynthesis Regulation ..........................................................................126 3. Molecular Biology of Carotenogenesis ..................................................127 4. Molecular Biology as a Biotechnological Tool for Carotenoid Production.......................................................................133 E. Functions.........................................................................................................136 F. Methodological Aspects .................................................................................139 1. Extraction ................................................................................................139 2. Saponification ..........................................................................................140 3. Separation ................................................................................................140 4. Characterization.......................................................................................141 G. Carotenoids as Food Colors ...........................................................................143 1. Annatto ....................................................................................................145 2. Carotenes .................................................................................................146 3. Dunaliella ................................................................................................146 4. Haematococcus........................................................................................146 5. Marigold ..................................................................................................147 6. Paprika .....................................................................................................147 7. Saffron .....................................................................................................147 8. Tomato.....................................................................................................148 9. Synthetic Carotenoids .............................................................................149 H. Processing and Stability .................................................................................151 1. In Model Systems ...................................................................................151 2. In Food Systems......................................................................................151 I. Production of Carotenoids in Bioreactors......................................................153 References..............................................................................................................157 Chapter 8 Anthocyanins and Betalains.............................................................167 A. Anthocyanins ..................................................................................................167 1. Definition.................................................................................................167 2. Classification ...........................................................................................167 3. Distribution..............................................................................................168 4. Biosynthesis: Biochemistry and Molecular Biology..............................171 a. Biochemistry ....................................................................................171 b. Biosynthesis Regulation...................................................................174 c. Molecular Biology of Anthocyanin Biosynthesis ...........................175 d. Molecular Biology as a Biotechnological Tool in the Manipulation of Anthocyanin Biosynthesis ....................................176 5. Functions .................................................................................................177 a. Color and Ecological Functions ......................................................177 b. Anthocyanins — Photosynthesis and Photoprotection ...................177 c. Cold Injury and Anthocyanins.........................................................178 d. Marker for Good Manufacturing Practices in Food Processing .....178 6. Methodological Aspects ..........................................................................179 a. Extraction .........................................................................................179 b. Separation.........................................................................................180 c. Characterization ...............................................................................180 7. Anthocyanins as Food Colors .................................................................182 8. Processing and Stability ..........................................................................183 a. In Model Systems ............................................................................183 b. In Food Systems...............................................................................188 9. Production of Anthocyanins by Plant Tissue Culture ............................191 B. Betalains .........................................................................................................192 1. Definition.................................................................................................192 2. Classification ...........................................................................................193 3. Distribution..............................................................................................195 4. Biosynthesis: Biochemistry and Molecular Biology..............................195 a. Biochemistry ....................................................................................195 b. Biosynthesis Regulation...................................................................199 c. Molecular Biology of Betalain Biosynthesis ..................................199 5. Functions .................................................................................................199 a. Taxonomic Markers .........................................................................199 b. Ecological and Physiological Aspects .............................................200 6. Methodological Aspects ..........................................................................200 a. Extraction .........................................................................................200 b. Separation and Purification..............................................................200 c. Characterization ...............................................................................201 7. Betalains as Food Colors ........................................................................204 8. Processing and Stability ..........................................................................205 a. In Model Systems ............................................................................205 b. In Food Systems...............................................................................209 9. Production of Betalains by Plant Tissue Culture ...................................210 References..............................................................................................................211 Chapter 9 Other Natural Pigments ...................................................................221 A. Chlorophylls ...................................................................................................221 1. Chlorophyll Structures ............................................................................221 2. Chlorophyll Degradation, Processing, and Stability ..............................221 3. Chlorophyll Extraction............................................................................230 4. Isolation of Chlorophylls ........................................................................231 5. Chlorophylls as Food Additives..............................................................231 B. Caramel...........................................................................................................232 1. Caramel Preparation................................................................................233 2. Caramels as Food Additives....................................................................234 3. Caramel Characterization and Studies of Authenticity ..........................237 C. Turmeric..........................................................................................................239 1. Preparation of Turmeric Products ...........................................................240 2. Chemistry of Turmeric Color..................................................................242 3. Turmeric as a Food Additive...................................................................243 D. Cochineal, Carmine, and Other Natural Pigments from Insects...................245 1. Cochineal and Carmine...........................................................................245 a. Pigment Extraction...........................................................................245 b. As Food Colorants ...........................................................................246 2. Other Natural Pigments Obtained from Insects .....................................247 E. Monascus ........................................................................................................248 1. Commercial Production...........................................................................248 2. Studies on Fermentation Process ............................................................248 3. Applications.............................................................................................249 F. Iridoids............................................................................................................249 References..............................................................................................................251 Chapter 10 Chemicals and Colorants as Nutraceuticals ..................................257 A. Fundamentals..................................................................................................257 B. Nutraceuticals and Related Terms — Definitions .........................................259 C. Food Items as Nutraceuticals .........................................................................261 1. Plant Materials.........................................................................................261 a. Spices ...............................................................................................261 b. Cereals..............................................................................................263 c. Soybean ............................................................................................264 d. Cruciferous Vegetables.....................................................................266 e. Fruits and Vegetables .......................................................................266 f. Ginseng (Panax sp.) .........................................................................267 g. St. John’s Wort ( Hypericum perforatum L.)....................................269 h. Echinacea ( E. pallida and E. purpurea )..........................................270 2. Marine Products ......................................................................................270 3. Probiotics.................................................................................................271 D. Phytochemicals as Nutraceuticals ..................................................................271 1. Fatty Acids...............................................................................................271 2. Inulin and Oligofructose .........................................................................272 3. Flavonoids ...............................................................................................272 4. Tannins.....................................................................................................273 E. Natural Colorants as Nutraceuticals...............................................................276 1. Carotenoids..............................................................................................276 2. Anthocyanins ...........................................................................................281 3. Betalains ..................................................................................................284 4. Chlorophylls ............................................................................................285 5. Turmeric ..................................................................................................286 a. Control of Lipid Metabolism...........................................................286 b. Antimutagenic ..................................................................................288 c. Anticarcinogenic ..............................................................................288 d. Other Biological Activities ..............................................................289 6. Monascus.................................................................................................289 7. Iridoids.....................................................................................................290 F. Nutraceuticals — The Perspective .................................................................291 1. The Choice ..............................................................................................291 2. Foods for Specific Needs ........................................................................292 3. Markets for Nutraceuticals......................................................................293 4. Nutraceuticals and the New Tendencies .................................................295 References..............................................................................................................298 Appendix: List of Abbreviations........................................................................307 Index ......................................................................................................................313