Plastic wastes : management, control, recycling, and disposal

Production and Use of Plastics. ...................... .2 Plastics in the Marine Environment. ................... .3 Combined Sewer Overflows. ................... .3 Stormwater Discharges. ...................... .5 Vessels ................................. .5 Litter Prevention and Retrieval ................. .5 Management of Plastic Wastes ....................... .6 Management of Plastics in a Landfill .............. .6 Management of Plastics in an Incinerator ........... .6 Methods for Reducing Impacts of Plastic Wastes ........... .7 Source Reduction .......................... .7 Recycling. ............................... .8 Degradable Plastics ......................... 10 1. INTRODUCTION. . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12 2. PRODUCTION, USE, AND DISPOSAL OF PLASTICS AND PLASTIC PRODUCTS. ................................. .I4 2.1 Summary of Key Findings. ............................ .14 2.2 Technological Overview .............................. .15 2.2.1 Manufacturing Resins. ............................ 15 2.2.2 Incorporating Additives .......................... .23 2.2.3 Processing Resins into End Products .................. .23 vii viii Contents and Subject index 2.3 Production and Consumption Statistics. ................... .24 2.3.1 Historical Overview ............................. .24 2.3.2 Domestic Production of Plastics. ..................... 24 2.3.3 Import/Export and Domestic Consumption ............. .25 2.3.4 Economic Profile of the Plastics Industry. ............... 25 2.3.4.1 Sector Characteristics ...................... .25 2.3.4.2 Market Conditions and Prices for Commodity Resins ................................ .28 2.3.5 Forecasts of Market Growth ....................... .30 2.3.6 Characteristics of Major Resin Types. ................. .32 2.3.7 Characteristics of Major Additive Types. ............... .32 2.4 Major End Use Markets for Plastics. ...................... .39 2.4.1 Packaging. ................................... .39 2.4.2 Building and Construction. ........................ .45 2.4.3 Consumer and Institutional Products. ................. .48 2.4.4 Electrical and Electronics ......................... .48 2.4.5 Furniture and Furnishings. ........................ .51 2.4.6 Transportation ................................ .51 2.4.7 Adhesives, Inks, and Coatings ...................... .54 2.4.8 Other ...................................... .54 2.5 Disposition of Plastics into the Solid Waste Stream ............ .54 2.5.1 Plastics in Municipal Solid Waste ..................... 56 2.5.2 Plastics in Building and Construction Wastes. ............ .64 2.5.3 Plastics in Automobile Salvage Residue ................ .64 2.5.4 Plastics in Litter ............................... .65 2.5.5 Plastics in Marine Debris. ......................... .67 References, ......................................... .68 3. IMPACTS OF PLASTIC DEBRIS ON THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT. . .70 3.1 Summary of Key Findings. ............................ .70 3.2 Types and Sources of Plastic Debris ...................... .71 3.2.1 Land-Based Sources. ............................ .72 3.2.1 .I Plastic Manufacturing and Fabricating Facilities and Related Transportation Activities. ........... .74 3.2.1 .2 Municipal Solid Waste Disposal Activities ......... .79 3.2.1.3 Sewage Treatment Plants and Combined Sewer Overflows. ............................. .82 3.2.1.4 Stormwater Runoff/Nonpoint Sources ........... .83 3.2.1.5 Beach Use and Resuspension of Beach Litter ....... .85 3.2.2 Marine Sources. ............................... .92 3.2.2.1 Merchant Marine Vessels .................... .93 3.2.2.2 Fishing Vessels. .......................... .95 3.2.2.3 Recreational Boats ........................ .96 3.2.2.4 Military and Other Government Vessels .......... .98 3.2.2.5 Miscellaneous Vessels (Educational, Private Research, and Industrial Vessels) ............... 100 3.2.2.6 Offshore Oil and Gas Platforms. ............... 100 3.2.2.7 Recent Estimates of Plastic Wastes Disposed in U.S. Waters by All Maritime Sectors. ............ 101 Contents and Subject Index ix 3.2.3 Illegal Disposal of Wastes into the Marine Environment ..... 107 3.3 Fate of Persistent Marine Debris. ........................ 110 3.3.1 Physical Fate and Transport Processes. ................ 110 3.3.2 Degradative Processes. ........................... 113 3.4 Effects of Plastic Debris .............................. 115 3.4.1 Impacts on Marine Wildlife ........................ 115 3.4.1 .I Entanglement ........................... 116 3.4.1.2 Ingestion. .............................. 126 3.4.2 Aesthetic and Economic Effects. .................... 135 3.4.3 Effects on Human Health and Safety. ................. 137 3.5 Summary. ....................................... 137 References. ........................................ .139 4. IMPACTS OF POST-CONSUMER PLASTICS WASTE ON THE MANAGEMENT OF MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE ............... 147 4.1 Summary of Key Findings. ............................ 147 4.1.1 Landfilling. .................................. 147 4.1 .l .l Management Issues ........................ 147 4.1.1.2 Environmental Releases ..................... 148 4.1.2 Incineration .................................. 148 4.1.2.1 Management issues ........................ 148 4.1.2.2 Environmental Releases. .................... 148 4.1.3 Litter ..................................... .149 4.2 Landfilling. ...................................... 149 4.2.1 Management Issues ............................. 151 4.2.1 .l Landfill Capacity ......................... 151 4.2.1.2 Landfill Integrity ......................... 156 4.2.1.3 Other Management Issues. ................... 157 4.2.2 Environmental Releases .......................... 158 4.2.2.1 Leaching of Plastic Polymers. ................. 158 4.2.2.2 Leaching of Plastics Additives. ................ 158 4.3 Incineration ...................................... 175 4.3.1 Introduction. ................................. 177 4.3.1.1 Number, Capacity, and Types of Incinerators. ...... 178 4.3.1.2 Combustion Properties of Plastics .............. 180 4.3.1.3 Plastics Combustion and Pollution Control ........ 180 4.3.2 Incinerator Management Issues. ..................... 185 4.3.2.1 Excessive Flame Temperature ................. 185 4.3.2.2 Products of Incomplete Combustion (PICs). ....... 185 4.3.2.3 Formation of Slag. ........................ 186 4.3.2.4 Formation of Corrosive Gases. ................ 186 4.3.3 Environmental Releases .......................... 187 4.3.3.1 Emissions from MSW Incinerators .............. 190 4.3.3.2 Plastics Contribution to Incinerator Ash .......... 195 4.4 Litter ......................................... .197 4.4.1 Background .................................. 197 4.4.2 Analysis of Relative Impacts of Plastic and Other Litter ..... 201 References. ........................................ .203 x Contents and Subject Index 5. OPTIONS TO REDUCE THE IMPACTS OF POST-CONSUMER PLASTlCSWASTES...................................20 8 5.1 Summary of Key Findings. ........................... .208 5.1.1 Source Reduction .............................. 208 5.1.2 Recycling. ................................... 209 5.1.3 Degradable Plastics ............................. 210 5.1.4 Additional Efforts to Mitigate Impacts of Plastic Waste. ..... 210 5.2 Introduction to the Examination of Plastic Waste Management Strategies. ...................................... .211 5.3 Source Reduction ................................. .214 5.3.1 Definitions and Scope of the Analysis ................. 214 5.3.2 Opportunities for Volume Reduction of Gross Discards of Waste......................................21 5 5.3.3 Opportunities for Toxicity Reduction. ................ 217 5.3.4 Systematic Analysis of Source Reduction Efforts ......... 219 5.3.5 Current Initiatives for Source Reduction ............... 228 5.3.5.1 State and Local Initiatives ................... 228 5.3.5.2 Industry Initiatives. ....................... 230 5.4 Recycling. ...................................... .231 5.4.1 Scope of the Analysis. ........................... 232 5.4.2 Status and Outlook of Plastics Recycling Alternatives. ...... 232 5.4.2.1 Collecting Plastics for Recycling ............... 236 5.4.2.2 Separation of Plastics by Resin Types. ........... 244 5.4.2.3 Processing and Manufacturing of Recycled Plastics ... 251 5.4.2.4 Marketing of Recycled Plastics Products. ......... 255 5.4.2.5 Summary: Integration of Plastics Recycling Alternatives. ............................ 258 5.4.2.6 Current Government and Industry Plastics Recycling Initiatives .............................. 261 5.4.3 Costs of Plastics Recycling ........................ 263 5.4.3.1 Costs of Curbside Collection Programs ........... 263 5.4.3.2 Costs of Adding Plastics to Curbside Collection Programs. ............................. .274 5.4.3.3 Costs of Rural Recycling Programs. ............. 277 5.4.3.4 Costs of Container Deposit Legislation. .......... 278 5.4.4 Environmental, Human Health, Consumer, and Other Social Costs and Benefits Generated by Recycling Plastics. ... 281 5.4.4.1 Environmental Issues. ...................... 281 5.4.4.2 Health and Consumer Issues .................. 281 5.4.4.3 Other Social Costs and Benefits. ............... 282 5.5 Degradable Plastics ................................. 282 5.5.1 Scope of the Analysis. ........................... 283 5.5.2 Types of Degradable Plastics and Degradation Processes ..... 283 5.5.2.1 Photodegradation. ........................ 284 5.5.2.2 Biodegradation. .......................... 286 5.5.2.3 Other Degradation Processes. ................. 287 5.5.3 Environmental, Health, and Consumer Issues and Other Costs and Benefits Generated by Use of Degradable Plastics. .. 288 Contents and Subject Index xi 5.5.3.1 Environmental Issues. ...................... 288 5.5.3.2 Efficiency of Degradation Processes in the Marine Environment. .......................... .292 5.5.3.3 Human Health Issues. ...................... 295 5.5.3.4 Consumer Issues. ......................... 296 5.5.4 Cost of Degradable Plastics ........................ 297 5.5.5 Current Status of Efforts to Foster Manufacture and Use of Degradable Plastics. ........................... 297 5.5.5.1 Regulations Requiring Use of Degradable Plastics .... 297 5.5.5.2 Industry Initiatives on Degradable Plastics. ........ 299 5.6 Additional Programs to Mitigate the Effects of Plastic Waste ...... 301 5.6.1 Efforts to Control Discharges of Land-Generated Wastes from Sanitary Sewers, Stormwater Sewers, and Nonpoint Urban Runoff. ............................... .301 5.6.2 Efforts to Implement the MARPOL Annex V Regulations. ... 302 5.6.3 Efforts to Reduce Plastics Generated from Fishing Operations. ................................. .303 5.6.4 Efforts to Control Discharges of Plastic Pellets ........... 303 5.6.5 EPA Programs to Control Environmental Emissions from Incineration. ................................ .305 5.6.6 EPA Programs to Control Environmental Hazards Arising from the Landfilling of Plastic Wastes with Municipal Solid Waste .................................... ..30 5 References. ........................................ .307 6. OBJECTIVES AND ACTION ITEMS ....................... .313 6.1 Objectives for Improving Municipal Solid Waste Management. ..... 314 6.1 .l Source Reduction ............................. .314 6.1.2 Recycling. .................................. .318 6.1.3 Landfilling and Incineration ....................... 321 6.2 Objectives for Handling Problems Outside the MSW Management System ........................................ .323 6.2.1 Wastewater Treatment Systems/Combined Sewer Overflows/ Stormwater Drainage Systems ...................... 323 6.2.1 .l Wastewater Treatment Systems. ............... 323 6.2.1.2 Combined Sewer Overflows .................. 324 6.2.1.3 Stormwater Discharges ..................... 325 6.2.2 Other Sources of Marine Debris ..................... 326 6.2.2.1 Vessels. .............................. .326 6.2.2.2 Plastic Manufacturers, Processors, and Transporters. .. 327 6.2.2.3 Garbage Barges. .......................... 327 6.2.2.4 Land- and Sea-Originated Litter. ............... 328 6.2.3 Degradable Plastics ............................. 329 APPENDIX A-STATUTORY AND REGULATORY AUTHORITIES AVAILABLE TO EPA AND OTHER FEDERAL AGENCIES . . . . . . . . . .332 A.1 Summary of Findings. . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332 xii Contents and Subject Index A.2 Legislation Controlling the Disposal of Plastic Wastes from Vessels into Navigable Waters. .......................... 334 A.2.1 The Marine Plastic Pollution Research and Control Act of 1987......................................33 4 A.2.2 Additional Legislation. .......................... 335 A.3 Legislation Controlling the Disposal of Plastic Wastes from Land Sources to Navigable Waters ........................... 336 A.3.1 The Ocean Dumping Act ........................ .337 A.3.2 The Clean Water Act. .......................... .337 A.3.3 Shore Protection Act of 1988. .................... .338 A.3.4 Deepwater Port Act ........................... .338 A.4 Disposal of Plastic Waste from Any Source onto Land .......... 338 A.4.1 Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) ........ 338 A.4.2 Clean Air Act (CAA). .......................... .339 A.5 Other Legislation that Influences the Manufacture or Discard of Plastic Materials ................................... 340 A.5.1 Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA) ................ 340 A.5.2 Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act. .................... .34O A.5.3 Fish and Wildlife Conservation Laws ................. 341 A.5.4 Degradable Plastic Ring Carrier Law. ................. 342 A.5.5 National Environmental Policy Act .................. 342 References. ........................................ .343 APPENDIX B-STATE AND LOCAL RECYCLING EFFORTS. ....... .344 References. ........................................ .357 APPENDIX C-SUBSTITUTES FOR LEAD AND CADMIUM ADDITIVES FOR PLASTICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .358 C.l Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .358 C.2 Substitute Colorants and Their Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358 C.2.1 Costs of Lead- and Cadmium-Based Pigments and Their Substitutes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .362 C.2.2 Other Factors Affecting Selection of Substitutes and Substitute Costs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .365 C.3 Substitute Stabilizers and Their Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367 C.3.1 Substitutes for Lead-Containing Heat Stabilizers. . . . . . . . . . 367 C.3.2 Substitutes for Cadmium-Containing Heat Stabilizers . . . . . . 371 C.3.3 Costs of Lead- and Cadmium-Based Heat Stabilizers and Their Substitutes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371 C.3.4 Other Factors Affecting Selection of Substitutes and Substitute Costs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .