The effects of air pollution on the built environment.

CONTENTS Contributors xiii Preface xvii Chapter 1 Long Term Damage to the Built Environment 1 P. Brimblecombe and D. Camuffo 1. Introduction 1 2. Changes in Climate 2 2.1. History of Climate 5 2.2. Freeze-Thaw Cycles 8 2.3. Storms and Precipitation 11 2.4. Biological Factors 13 3. Changes in Air Pollution 13 3.1. History of Air Pollution 14 3.2. Early Acid Rain and Dry Fogs 15 3.3. Early Descriptions of Damage 18 3.4. Industrial Development and Pollution 19 3.5. Victorian Approaches to Damage 20 3.6. Architectural Responses 21 3.7. The Twentieth Century 22 3.8. Economic Analysis 22 3.9. Archeometric Sources of Information 25 4. Recent Changes in Modern Pollutants and Materials 27 vi Contents Chapter 2 Background Controls on Urban Stone Decay: Lessons from Natural Rock Weathering 31 B.J. Smith 1. Introduction 31 2. The Origins of Misconceptions 32 2.1. Decisions Governing Choice of Materials 33 2.2. Research Bias and Accessibility 33 3. Process Interactions 35 4. Climatic Controls on Stone Decay 38 4.1. Temperature Controls 40 4.2. Moisture Controls 43 5. The Direct Consequences of Placing Stone Within a Building 46 6. Rates and Patterns of Decay 48 6.1. Temporal Variability 48 6.2. Spatial Variability 52 7. Inheritance Effects 54 8. Concluding Observations and Implications for Stone Conservation 56 Chapter 3 Mechanisms of Air Pollution Damage to Stone 63 C. Sabbioni 1. Introduction 63 2. Damage on Stone Buildings and Monuments 65 2.1. Marble and Limestone 65 2.2. Sandstone 73 2.3. Granite 76 3. Chamber Tests 76 4. Field Exposure Tests 88 Chapter 4 Mechanisms of Air Pollution Damage to Brick, Concrete and Mortar 107 T. Yates 1. Introduction 2. Air Pollutants 107 108 Contents vii 3. Concrete and Cement 110 3.1. Introduction 110 3.2. Cement And Concrete Chemistry 110 3.3. The Effect of Carbon Dioxide 112 3.4. The Effects of Other Pollutants 115 3.5. Conclusions 118 4. Brickwork and Mortar 118 4.1. Introduction 118 4.2. Brick Manufacture and Composition 119 4.3. Pollutant Attack on Brick 122 4.4. Mortar and Pollutant Attack 124 4.5. Interactions Between Brick and Mortar 126 4.6. Conclusions 127 Chapter 5 Salts and Crusts 133 M. Steiger 1. Introduction 133 2. Sources of Salts in Building Materials 134 2.1. Chemical Weathering 134 2.2. Acid Deposition 135 2.3. Other Sources of Salts 143 3. Mobility and Hygroscopicity of Salts 144 4. Mechanism of Salt Damage 153 4.1. Crystallization Pressure 154 4.2. Hydration Pressure 158 5. Atmospheric Pollution and Salt Enrichment 163 6. Conclusions 175 Chapter 6 Organic Pollutants in the Built Environment and Their Effect on the Microorganisms 183 C. Saizjimenez 1. Introduction 183 2. Sources of Organic Pollutants in Urban Environments 184 2.1. Hydrocarbons 186 2.2. Acids and Ketones 186 viii Contents 2.3. Triterpenoid Hydrocarbons 187 2.4. Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons 187 2.5. Carbonaceous Matter 188 3. Identification of Organic Pollutants in Black Crusts 189 3.1. Analytical Methodologies 189 3.2. Sites Investigated 191 3.3. Solvent Extraction of Black Crusts 192 3.4. Analytical Pyrolysis of Black Crusts 198 3.5. Simultaneous Pyrolysis/Methylation 201 4. Microbiology of Black Crusts 206 5. Biodegradation of Black Crusts 211 5.1. Aliphatic Hydrocarbon Biodegradation 211 5.2. Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon Biodegradation 213 5.3. Gypsum Crust Biodegradation 217 6. Conclusions 219 Chapter 7 Air Pollution Damage to Metals 227 J. Tidblad and V. Kucera 1. Introduction 227 2. Effects of the Environment 228 2.1. The Multi-Pollutant Situation 228 2.2. Climate 229 2.3. Gaseous Pollutants 230 2.4. Particles 234 2.5. Wet Deposition 235 3. Effects on Metallic Materials 237 3.1. Effects on Metals in General 237 3.2. Ferrous Metals 238 3.3. Zinc and Galvanised Steel 239 3.4. Copper and Bronze 240 3.5. Aluminium 241 4. Life Time Assessment and Cost Calculations 242 5. Corrosion Trends 244 Contents ix Chapter 8 The Effect of Air Pollution on Glass 249 J. Leissner 1. Introduction 249 2. The Corrosion Process 250 2.1. Chemical Composition and Structure of Glass 250 2.2. Principle Corrosion Reactions 252 2.3. Different Stages of Surface Corrosion 254 2.4. Corrosion Enhancing Factors and Effects 257 3. Main Analytical Tools to Examine Corrosion Effects on Glass 259 3.1. SEM/EDX 259 3.2. InfraRed and Raman Spectroscopy 259 4. Evaluation of Environmental Impact 260 5. Conclusions 263 Chapter 9 The Effects of Ozone on Materials — Experimental Evaluation of the Susceptibility of Polymeric Materials to Ozone 267 D.S. Lee, P.M. Lewis, J.N. Cape, I.D. Leith and S.E. Espenhahn 1. Introduction 267 2. Experimental Design 268 2.1. Experimental Philosophy and Strategy 268 2.2. The High Ozone Exposure Chambers 269 2.3. The Open-Top Chambers 269 3. Exposure of Rubber and Polymeric Materials to Ozone 271 3.1. Introduction 271 3.2. Test Materials 273 3.3. Test Piece Evaluation 274 3.4. Results 276 4. Conclusions on the Exposure of Rubber and Polymeric Materials to Ozone 285 x Contents Chapter 10 The Soiling of Buildings by Air Pollution 289 / . Watt and R. Hamilton Introduction Soiling and Material Damage The Nature of Atmospheric Particles 3.1. Primary Particulate Matter 3.2. Secondary Particulate Matter 3.3. Particle Mass Concentrations 3.4. Chemical Composition of Particles 3.5. Carbonaceous Compounds 3.6. Particle Deposition 3.7. Deposition Velocities Soiling Models 4.1. Field Studies 4.2. A Theoretical Framework Deposition Velocity Indoor Soiling Economics of Soiling Costs to Cultural Heritage Caused Conclusions by Soiling 289 291 293 294 295 296 298 298 302 303 304 305 312 314 319 320 325 329 Chapter 11 Changes in Soiling Patterns Over Time on the Cathedral of Learning 335 W. Tang, C.I. Davidson, S. Finger, V. Etyemezian, M.F. Striegel and S.I. Sherwood Introduction Changes of Soiling Patterns 2.1. Background 2.2. Changes in Soiling Patterns Over Time Based on Archival Photographs 2.3. Analysis of Soiling on Architectural Features 2.4. Comparison of Soiling Patterns with Modeling of Rain Impingement Conclusions 335 336 336 338 342 345 347 Contents xi Chapter 12 Exposure of Buildings to Pollutants in Urban Areas: A Review of the Contributions from Different Sources 351 D.J. Hall, A.M. Spanton, V. Kukadia and S. Walker 1. Introduction 351 2. Dispersion Over Different Scales in Urban Areas 353 2.1. The Definition of Scales and Spatial Variability 353 2.2. Dispersion at Short (Microscale) Ranges 355 2.3. Dispersion at Neighbourhood Scales (100-2000m) 363 2.4. Dispersion at Urban Scales (5-50 km) 368 2.5. Dispersion at Regional and Continental Scales (100 km +) 370 2.6. The Overall Pollutant Concentration Level Due to the Contribution of Sources at Varying Scales and "Background" Concentrations 371 3. Some Examples of Urban Pollutant Data 373 3.1. Pollution Monitoring Sites in the West Midlands Area 373 3.2. Correlations of Pollutant Levels Between the Sites 4. Discussion 5. Conclusions 6. Summary Chapter 13 The Whole Building and Patterns of Degradation R. Inkpen 1. Introduction 2. Small-Scale Studies of Stone Degradation 381 387 388 389 393 393 395 xii Contents 3. Classification of Building Degradation 398 4. The Building as the Physical Representation of Socio-Economic and Cultural Factors 406 5. Conclusion 416 Index 423