Power plant engineering

Chapter 1: Fundamental of Power Plant ... 1 1.1 Introduction ... 1 1.2 Concept of Power Plants ... 1 1.3 Classification of Power Plants ... 2 1.4 Energy ... 3 1.5 Types of Energy ... 4 1.6 Power ... 5 1.7 Power Development in India ... 5 1.8 Resources for Power Generation ... 7 1.9 Present Power Position in India ... 9 1.10 Future Planning for Power Generation ... 9 1.11 Power Corporations in India ... 11 1.11.1 National Thermal Power Corporation ... 11 1.11.2 National Hydro-Electric Power Corporation ... 11 1.11.3 Rural Electrification Corporation ... 12 1.11.4 Damodar Valley Corporation ... 12 1.11.5 North-Eastern Electric Power Corporation Limited ... 12 1.11.6 Bhakra Beas Management Board and Beas Construction Board ... 13 1.11.7 Power Engineers Training Society (PETS) ... 13 1.11.8 Central Power Research Institute (CPRI), Bangalore ... 13 1.11.9 Nathpa, Jhaicri Power Corporation Limited ... 13 1.12 Review of Thermodynamics Cycles Related to Power Plants ... 14 1.13 Classification of Power Plant Cycle ... 15 1.13.1 Carnot Cycle ... 15 1.13.2 Rankine Cycle ... 15 1.13.3 Reheat Cycle ... 16 1.13.4 Regenerative Cycle (Feed Water Heating) ... 16 1.13.5 Binary Vapour Cycle ... 17 1.13.6 Reheat-Regenerative Cycle ... 17 1.13.7 Formula Summary ... 18 1.14 Fuels and Combustion ... 18 1.15 Steam Generators ... 18 1.16 Steam Prime Movers ... 19 1.17 Steam Condensers ... 19 1.17.1 Surface Condensers ... 20 1.17.2 Jet Condensers ... 22 1.17.3 Types of Jet Condensers ... 22 1.18 Water (Hydraulic) Turbines ... 23 1.18.1 Impulse and Reaction Turbines ... 23 1.19 Scienc Vs. Technology ... 25 1.19.1 Scientific Research ... 25 1.19.2 Science and Technology Infrastructure ... 26 1.20 Facts Vs. Values ... 26 1.21 Atomic Energy ... 26 1.22 Highlights of the Nuclear Power Programme ... 27 1.23 Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited ... 27 1.24 Ocean Engineering Applications ... 28 Chapter 2: Non-Conventional Energy Resources and Utilisation ... 33 2.1 Introduction ... 33 2.2 Energy Science ... 33 2.3 Various Energy Science ... 33 2.4 Energy Technology ... 35 2.5 Energy Technology and Energy Sciences ... 36 2.6 Law of Conservation of Energy ... 37 2.7 Facts and Figures about Energy ... 37 2.8 Indian and Global Energy Sources ... 38 2.8.1 The Sun ... 38 2.8.2 etroleum ... 39 2.8.3 Natural Gas ... 43 2.8.4 Coal ... 44 2.8.5 Nuclear Energy ... 45 2.8.6 LPG (Liquified Petroleum Gas) ... 46 2.8.7 Alcohol ... 46 2.8.8 Gasohol ... 46 2.8.9 Hydro Power ... 46 2.9 Energy Exploited ... 46 2.10 Energy Demand ... 48 (viii) 2.11 Energy Planning ... 49 2.12 Introduction to Various Sources of Energy ... 51 2.12.1 Conventional Sources of Energy ... 51 2.12.2 Non-Conventional Sources of Energy ... 51 2.13 Introduction to Various Non-Conventional Energy Resources ... 52 2.14 Bio-Gas ... 53 2.14.1 Aerobic and Anaerobic Bio-Conversion Process ... 53 2.14.2 Raw Materials ... 55 2.14.3 Properties of Bio Gas ... 56 2.14.4 Bio Gas Plant Technology ... 56 2.15 Wind Energy ... 58 2.15.1 Wind Machine Fundamentals ... 59 2.15.2 Aerofoil Design ... 60 2.15.3 Wind Power Systems ... 62 2.15.4 Economic Issues ... 63 2.15.5 Selection of Wind Mill ... 64 2.15.6 Recent Developments ... 65 2.16 Solar Energy ... 66 2.16.1 Solar Radiations ... 67 2.16.2 Solar Thermal Power Plant ... 68 2.16.3 Solar Energy Storage ... 70 2.16.4 Recent Developments in Solar Power Plants ... 72 2.17 Electrochemical Effects and Fuel Cells ... 73 2.17.1 Reversible Cells ... 73 2.17.2 Ideal Fuel Cells ... 74 2.17.3 Other Types of Fuel Cells ... 75 2.17.4 Efficiency of Cells ... 76 2.18 Thermionic Systems and Thennionic Emission ... 78 2.18.1 Thermoionic Conversion ... 79 2.18.2 Ideal and Actual Efficiency ... 80 2.19 Thermoelectric Systems ... 82 2.19.1 Principle of Working ... 82 2.19.2 Performance ... 83 2.20 Geo Thermal Energy ... 86 2.20.1 Hot Springs ... 87 2.20.2 Steam Ejection ... 87 2.20.3 Site Selection ... 88 (ix) 2.20.4 Geothermal Power Plants ... 88 2.20.5 Advanced Concepts ... 95 2.21 Ocean Energy ... 97 2.21.1 Power Plants Based on Ocean Energy ... 98 2.22 Other Energy Technology ... 101 2.22.1 Liquid Fuel ... 101 2.22.2 Fuel Cell Technology ... 103 2.22.3 Hydrogen Energy ... 104 2.22.4 Hydrogen Energy Technology ... 104 2.22.5 Battery Operated Vehicles ... 106 2.22.6 Bio Fuel Technology ... 107 2.22.7 Hydroelectric Power ... 107 2.22.8 Innovative Heat Exchanger to Save Energy ... 108 Chapter 3: Power Plant Economics and Variable Load Problem ... 120 3.1 Terms and Factors ... 120 3.2 Factor Effecting Power Plant Design ... 122 3.3 Effect of Power Plant Type on Costs ... 122 3.3.1 Initial Cost ... 122 3.3.2 Rate of Interest ... 123 3.3.3 Depreciation ... 123 3.3.4 Operational Costs ... 124 3.3.5 Cost of Fuels ... 125 3.3.6 Labout Cost ... 125 3.3.7 Cost of Maintenance and Repairs ... 125 3.3.8 Cost of Stores ... 125 3.3.9 Supervision ... 126 3.3.10 Taxes ... 126 3.4 Effect of Plant Type on Rates (Tariffs or Energy Element) ... 126 3.4.1 Requirements of a Tariff ... 126 3.4.2 Types of Tariffs ... 126 3.5 Effect of Plant Type on Fixed Elements ... 129 3.6 Effect of Plant Type on Customer Elements ... 129 3.7 Investor’s Profit ... 129 3.8 Economics in Plant Selection ... 130 3.9 Economic of Power Generation ... 131 3.10 Industrial Production and Power Generational Compared ... 132 3.11 Load Curves ... 132 (x) 3.12 Ideal and Realized Load Curves ... 133 3.13 Effect of Variable Load on Power Plan Design ... 133 3.14 Effect of Variable Load on Power Plant Operation ... 134 Chapter 4 : Steam Power Plant ... 142 4.1 Introduction ... 142 4.2 Essentials of Steam Power Plant Equipment ... 142 4.2.1 Power Station Design ... 144 4.2.2 Characteristics of Steam Power Plant ... 144 4.3 Coal Handling ... 145 4.3.1 Dewatering of Coal ... 149 4.4 Fuel Burning Furnaces ... 150 4.4.1 Types of Furnaces ... 150 4.5 Method of Fuel Firing ... 151 4.5.1 Hand Firing ... 151 4.5.2 Mechanical Firing (Stokers) ... 153 4.6 Automatic Boiler Control ... 156 4.7 Pulverized Coal ... 157 4.7.1 Ball Mill ... 158 4.7.2 Ball and Race Mill ... 159 4.7.3 Shaft Mill ... 161 4.8 Pulverized Coal Firing ... 161 4.9 Pulverized Coal Burners ... 163 4.9.1 Cyclone Fired Boilers ... 166 4.10 Water Walls ... 166 4.11 Ash Disposal ... 167 4.11.1 Ash Handling Equipment ... 168 4.12 Smoke and Dust Removal ... 172 4.13 Types of Dust Collectors ... 172 4.13.1 Fly Ash Scrubber ... 174 4.13.2 Fluidized Bed Combustion (FBC) ... 175 4.13.3 Types of FBC Systems ... 176 Chapter 5 : Steam Generator ... 179 5.1 Introduction ... 179 5.2 Types of Boilers ... 179 5.3 Cochran Boilers ... 181 5.4 Lancashire Boiler ... 183 (xi) 5.5 Locomotive Boiler ... 185 5.6 Babcock Wilcox Boiler ... 187 5.7 Industrial Boilers ... 189 5.8 Merits and Demerits of Water Tube Boilers over Fire Tube Boilers Mertis ... 189 5.9 Requirements of a Good Boiler ... 190 5.10 High Pressure Boilers ... 190 5.10.1 La Mont Boiler ... 191 5.10.2 Benson Boiler ... 191 5.10.3 Loeffler Boiler ... 192 5.10.4 Schmidt-Hartmann Boiler ... 193 5.10.5 Velox Boiler ... 193 Chapter 6 : Steam Turbine ... 195 6.1 Principle of Operation of Steam Turbine ... 195 6.2 Classification of Steam Turbine ... 196 6.3 The Simple Impulse Turbine ... 200 6.4 Compounding of Impulse Turbine ... 201 6.5 Pressure Compounded Impulse Turbine ... 202 6.6 Simple Velocity-Compounded Impulse Turbine ... 203 6.7 Pressure and Velocity Compounded Impulse Turbine ... 204 6.8 Impulse-Reaction Turbine ... 205 6.9 Advantages of Steam Turbine over Steam Engine ... 206 6.10 Steam Turbine Capacity ... 206 6.11 Capability ... 207 6.12 Steam Turbine Governing ... 207 6.13 Steam Turbine Performance ... 207 6.14 Steam Turbine Testing ... 208 6.15 Choice of Steam Turbine ... 208 6.16 Steam Turbine Generators ... 208 6.17 Steam Turbine Specifications ... 209 Chapter 7 : Fuels and Combustion ... 217 7.1 Introduction ... 217 7.2 Coal ... 217 7.3 Coal Analysis ... 219 7.3.1 Proximate Analysis ... 219 7.3.2 Ultimate Analysis ... 219 7.3.3 Heating Value ... 219 (xii) 7.4 Coal Firing ... 221 7.5 Mechanical Stokers ... 222 7.6 Pulverized-Coal Firing ... 224 7.7 Cyclone Furnaces ... 230 Chapter 8 : Diesel Power Plant ... 234 8.1 Introduction ... 234 8.2 Operating Principle ... 236 8.3 Basic Types of IC Engines ... 236 8.3.1 Two-Stroke, Spark Ignition Gas Engines/Petrol Engines ... 237 8.3.2 Diesel Engines/Heavy Oil Engines ... 237 8.3.3 Duel Fuel Engines ... 237 8.3.4 High Compression Gas Engines ... 238 8.4 Advantage of Diesel Power Plant ... 238 8.5 Disadvantage of Diesel Power Plant ... 238 8.6 Application of Diesel Power Plant ... 238 8.7 General Layout of Diesel Power Plant ... 239 8.8 Performance of Diesel Engine ... 239 8.8.1 Indicated Mean Effective Pressure (IMEP) ... 239 8.8.2 Indicated Hourse Power (IHP) ... 239 8.8.3 Brake Horse Power (B.H.P.) ... 240 8.8.4 Frictional Horse Power (F.H.P.) ... 240 8.8.5 Indicated Thermal Efficiency ... 240 8.8.6 Brake Thermal Efficiency (Overall Efficiency) ... 240 8.8.7 Mechanical Efficiency ... 240 8.9 Fuel System of Diesel Power Plant ... 241 8.10 Lubrication System of Diesel Power Plant ... 242 8.10.1 Liquid Lubicricants or Wet Sump Lubrication System ... 244 8.10.2 Solid Lubricants or Dry Sump Lubrication System ... 246 8.10.3 Mist Lubrication System ... 246 8.11 Air Intakes and Admission System of Diesel Power Plant ... 246 8.12 Supercharging System of Diesel Power Plant ... 247 8.12.1 Types of Supercharger ... 248 8.12.2 Advantages of Supercharging ... 249 8.13 Exhaust System of Diesel Power Plant ... 249 8.14 Cooling System of Diesel Power Plant ... 250 8.14.1 Open Cooling System ... 251 8.14.2 Natural Circulation System ... 251 (xiii) 8.14.3 Forced Circulation Cooling System ... 251 8.15 Diesel Plant Operation ... 252 8.16 Efficiency of Diesel Power Plant ... 253 8.17 Heat Balance Sheet ... 255 Chapter 9 : Gas Turbine Power Plant ... 267 9.1 Introduction ... 267 9.2 Classification of Gas Turbine Power Plant ... 267 9.2.1 Open Cycle Gas Turbine Power Plant ... 268 9.2.2 Closed Cycle Gas Turbine Power Plant ... 269 9.3 Elements of Gas Turbine Power Plants ... 272 9.3.1 Compressors ... 272 9.3.2 Intercoolers and Heat Exchangers ... 273 9.3.3 Combustion Chambers ... 274 9.3.4 Gas Turbines ... 276 9.4 Regeneration and Reheating ... 276 9.4.1 Regeneration ... 276 9.4.2 Reheating ... 278 9.5 Cogeneration ... 279 9.5.1 Cogeneration—Why ... 279 9.5.2 Cogeneration Technologies ... 280 9.6 Auxiliary Systems ... 282 9.6.1 Starting Systems ... 282 9.6.2 Ignition Systems ... 283 9.6.3 Lubrication System ... 283 9.6.4 Fuel System and Controls ... 285 9.7 Control of Gas Turbines ... 286 9.7.1 Prime Control ... 286 9.7.2 Protective Controls .... 287 9.8 Gas Turbine Efficiency ... 289 9.8.1 Effect of Blade Friction ... 291 9.8.2 Improvement in Open Cycle ... 291 9.9 Operations and Maintenance Performance ... 292 9.9.1 Operation ... 292 9.9.2 Maintenance Performance ... 293 9.10. Troubleshooting and Remedies ... 294 9.11 Combined Cycle Power Plants ... 295 9.12 Applications of Gas Turbine ... 296 (xiv) 9.13 Advantages of Gas Turbine Power Plant ... 296 9.14 Disadvantages ... 297 Chapter 10 : Nuclear Power Plant ... 307 10.1 Introduction ... 307 10.2 General History and Trends ... 308 10.2.1 Major Events ... 308 10.2.2 What Might Change the Current Situation ? ... 309 10.2.3 Technical History and Developments ... 311 10.2.4 Developments After WW-2 ... 311 10.3 The Atomic Structure ... 312 10.4 Summary of Nuclear Energy Concepts and Terms ... 314 10.4.1 Summary of Features ... 314 10.4.2 Fission ... 314 10.4.3 Critical Mass ... 315 10.4.4 Alpha Radiation ... 315 10.4.5 Beta Particles ... 315 10.4.6 Gamma Particles ... 315 10.4.7 Uramium Fission ... 315 10.4.8 Half Life, T ... 316 10.5 Ethical Problems in Nuclear Power Regulation ... 316 10.6 Chemical and Nuclear Equations ... 316 10.7 Nuclear Fusion and Fission ... 317 10.7.1 Fusion ... 318 10.7.2 Fission ... 319 10.8 Energy From Fission and Fuel Burn Up ... 320 10.9 Radioactivity ... 320 10.10 Nuclear Reactor ... 322 10.10.1 Parts of a Nuclear Reactor ... 322 10.10.2 Nuclear Fuel ... 322 10.10.3 Moderator ... 324 10.10.4 Moderating Ratio ... 324 10.10.5 Reflector ... 325 10.10.6 Reactor Vessel ... 325 10.10.7 Biological Shieding ... 326 10.10.8 Coolant ... 326 10.10.9 Coolant Cycles ... 326 10.10.10 Reactor Core ... 326 (xv) 10.11 Conservation Ratio ... 327 10.12 Neutron Flux ... 327 10.13 Clasification of Reactors ... 327 10.14 Cost of Nuclear Power Plant ... 327 10.15 Nuclear Power Station in India ... 328 10.16 Light Water Reactor (LWR) and Heavy Water Reactor (HWR) ... 331 10.16.1 Importance of Heavy Water ... 332 10.17 Site Selection ... 333 10.18 Comparison of Nulcear Power Plant and Steam Power Plant ... 334 10.19 Multiplication Factor ... 334 10.20 Uranium Enrichment ... 334 10.21 Reactor Power Control ... 336 10.22 Nuclear Power Plant Economics ... 336 10.23 Safety Measures for Nuclear Power Plants ... 337 10.24 Site Selection and Commissioning Procedure ... 338 10.25 Major Nuclear Power Disasters ... 338 10.26 Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant ... 339 10.26.1 Reactor Design: RBMK-1000 ... 340 10.26.2 Control of the Reactor ... 340 10.26.3 Chernobyl Reactor Operations ... 340 10.26.4 Accident/Safety Plans ... 340 10.26.5 Evacuation ... 340 10.27 Safety Problems in Chernobyl Reactor Design ... 340 10.27.1 System Dynamics ... 340 10.27.2 Another Safety Problem with the Design ... 341 10.28 Other, Earlier, Soviet Nuclear Accidents ... 341 Chapter 11 : Hydro-Electric Power Plants ... 343 11.1 Introduction ... 343 11.2 Run-Off ... 345 11.3 Hydrograph and Flow Duration Curve ... 347 11.4 The Mass Curve .. 347 11.5 Selection of Site for a Hydro-Electric Power Plant ... 348 11.6 Essential Features of a Water-Power Plant ... 349 11.7 Calculations of Water Power Plants ... 351 11.8 Classification of Hydro-Plant ... 352 11.8.1 Storage Plants ... 352 11.8.2 Run-of-River Power Plants ... 354 (xvi) 11.8.3 Pumped Storage Power Plants ... 354 11.9 Power House and Turbine Setting ... 355 11.9.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Underground Power-House ... 359 11.10 Prime-Movers ... 362 11.11 Specific Speed of Turbine ... 367 11.12 Draft Tubes ... 370 11.12.1 Methods to Avoid Cavitation ... 375 11.12.2 Types of Draft Tubes ... 375 11.12.3 Different Types of Draft Tubes ... 377 11.13 Models and Model Testing ... 378 11.14 Selection of Turbine ... 381 Chapter 12 : Electrical System ... 386 12.1 Introduction ... 386 12.2 Generators and Motors ... 386 12.2.1 Rotors ... 387 12.2.2 Stators ... 389 12.2.3 Ventilation ... 390 12.2.4 Hight-Voltage Generators ... 392 12.3 Transformers ... 392 12.3.1 Constructional Parts ... 393 12.3.2 Core Constructions ... 393 12.3.3 Windings ... 397 12.4 Cooling of Transformers ... 402 12.4.1 Simple Cooling ... 403 12.4.2 Mixed Cooling ... 403 12.4.3 Natural Oil Cooling ... 403 12.4.4 Forced Oil Cooling ... 405 12.4.5 Internal Cooling ... 406 12.5 Bus-Bar ... 409 12.5.1 Single Bus-Bar System ... 409 12.5.2 Single Bus-Bar System with Sectionalisation ... 409 12.5.3 Duplicate Bus-Bar System ... 410 12.6 Busbar Protection ... 411 12.6.1 Differential Protection ... 411 12.6.2 Fault Bus Protection ... 412 (xvii) Chapter 13 : Pollution and its Control ... 414 13.1 Introduction ... 414 13.2 Environment Pollution due to Energy Use ... 414 13.3 Environment Pollution due to Industrial Trial Emissions ... 415 13.4 Environment Pollution to Road Transport ... 415 13.5 Harmful Effects of Emissions ... 415 13.5.1 Buildings and Materials ... 416 13.5.2 Soil, Vegetation and Animal Life ... 416 13.5.3 Human Beings ... 416 13.6 Steps Taken so far and their Impact ... 416 13.7 Noise Pollution and its Control ... 417 13.8 Green House Gases and their Effects ... 418 13.9 Fossil Fuel Pollution ... 419 13.9.1 Urban Air Pollution ... 419 13.9.2 Acid Rain ... 420 13.9.3 Global Climate Change ... 420 13.9.4 Stratospheric Ozone Depletion ... 420 13.9.4 Acid Fog ... 420 13.10 Pollution due to Combustion of Fuel ... 421 13.10.1 Gas Fuel ... 421 13.10.2 Methane ... 421 13.10.3 Alkanes ... 422 13.11 Pollution due to Gas Combustion ... 422 13.11.1 Unburned Hydrocarbons (UHCS) ... 422 13.11.2 Carbon Monoxide (CO) ... 422 13.11.3 Nitric Oxide (NOx) ... 422 13.11.4 Soot ... 424 13.12 Pollution due to Liquid Fuel ... 424 13.12.1 Atomization ... 424 13.12.2 Vaporization ... 424 13.12.3 Modes of Combustion ... 424 13.13 Pollution due to Solid Fuel ... 425 13.14 Air Pollution by Thermal Power Plants ... 428 13.15 Water Pollution by Thermal Power Plants ... 428 13.16 Environment Concerns and Diesel Power Plants ... 429 13.17 Nuclear Power Plant and the Environment ... 431 (xviii) 13.17.1 The Fuel Cycle ... 432 13.17.2 Wastes ... 433 13.18 Radiations from Nuclear-Power Plant Effluents ... 434 13.19 Impact on Pollution and Air Qality in Delhi ... 434 13.19.1 Environmental Concerns ... 435 13.19.2 Pollution Levels ... 435 13.19.3 Measurs to Combat Pollution ... 436 13.20 Method for Pollution Control ... 440 13.21 Control of Marine Pollution ... 441