Environmental studies : (for B.A., B. Sc. and B.Com students)

1. Introduction 1 1.1 Basic Concepts 1 1.1.1 Environmental Studies 2 1.2 Land Use Patterns—Agriculture, 3 Housing and Urbanisation 1.3 Natural (Non-Anthropogenic) and 4 Man-Made (Anthropogenic) Changes in Environment and Disasters 1.3.1 Natural Changes in Environment 4 1.3.2 Natural Disasters 5 1.3.3 Man-Made (Anthropogenic) Changes 7 in Environment and Disasters 1.3.4 London Smog 8 1.3.5 Mediterranean—A Dead Sea 8 1.3.6 Nuclear Explosions 8 1.3.7 Minamata Disease 9 1.3.8 Bhopal Disaster (December 3, 1984) 9 1.3.9 Chernobyl Disaster (1986) 9 1.3.10 Gulf War Hazards 10 viii Contents 1.4 Development vis-a-vis Environment 11 1.5 Environmental Hazards—Human Concern 12 about Environment Key Terms and Concepts (Glossary) 13 Questions 15 2. Nature and Natural Processes 16 2.1 Planet Earth—Origin and Evolution 16 2.1.1 The Sun in the Solar System 16 2.1.2 Origin of the Earth—Continents 17 and Ocean Basins 2.1.3 Origin of the Atmosphere 18 2.2 Components of the Earth/Environmental 19 Segments 2.2.1 Lithosphere 19 2.2.2 Hydrosphere 21 2.2.3 Atmosphere 21 2.2.4 Biosphere 22 2.3 The Climate of the Earth 22 2.3.1 Rain, Storms and Lightning 23 2.4 Origin and Evolution of Life 25 2.5 Natural/Biogeochemical Cycle 26 2.5.1 The Geologic Cycle 26 2.5.2 The Hydrological Cycle 26 2.5.3 The Oxygen Cycle 28 2.5.4 The Nitrogen Cycle 29 2.5.5 The Carbon Cycle 30 2.5.6 The Phosphate Cycle 31 2.5.7 The Sulphur Cycle 33 Key Terms and Concepts (Glossary) 34 Questions 36 3. Ecosystems 37 3.1 Ecology and Ecosystem 37 Contents ix 3.1.1 Biomes 39 3.1.2 Ecosystems 40 3.2 Forest Ecology 42 3.2.1 Forest Conservation 43 3.2.2 Biodiversity 45 3.2.3 Sustainable Ecosystem 46 Key Terms and Concepts (Glossary) 47 Questions 48 4. Population and Environment 49 4.1 Human Population and Distribution 49 4.1.1 Distribution 50 4.1.2 Population Density 51 4.1.3 Age Structure 51 4.1.4 Doubling Time 52 4.1.5 Fertility Rate 52 4.1.6 Infant Mortality/Life Expectancy 53 4.1.7 Carrying Capacity 53 4.2 Population Stabilisation/Sustainable 54 Development (Indian context) 4.2.1 Kerala Model 55 4.3 Women and Environment 56 4.3.1 Woman Power 57 4.4 Human Development 57 Key Terms and Concepts (Glossary) 59 Questions 60 5. Land and Water Resources of the Earth 62 5.1 Land, Water and Air—Interrelationship 62 in Ecosystem 5.2 Land Resource and Land Uses 62 5.2.1 Land Use Planning 63 5.2.2 Watershed Management 64 5.2.3 Grazing Land 65 5.2.4 Wastelands 66 x Contents 5.2.5 Mines 66 5.3 Water Resources and Water Uses 67 5.3.1 Chemical Characteristics of Water 69 5.4 Water Pollution 69 5.4.1 Water Pollutants 70 5.4.2 Ground Water Pollution/Arsenic 73 Contamination 5.4.3 Case Study of Ganga Pollution 73 5.5 Waste Water Treatment 75 5.5.1 Domestic Waste Water Treatment 76 5.5.2 Drinking Water Supply 76 5.5.3 Industrial Waste Water Treatment 76 5.6 Water Quality 77 5.7 Water Pollution Control and Water 78 Management—Water Recycling 5.7.1 Ganga Action Plan 79 5.7.2 Desalination 80 Key Terms and Concepts (Glossary) 81 Questions 84 6. Air Resource 86 6.1 Composition 86 6.1.1 Structure 87 6.2 Greenhouse Effect (Global Warming) 89 6.2.1 Other Greenhouse Gases 91 6.3 Ozone Hole 92 6.4 El Nino 94 6.5 Air Pollution 95 6.5.1 Primary Pollutants 95 6.5.2 Carbon Monoxide, CO 96 6.5.3 Sinks 97 6.5.4 Control of CO Pollution 97 6.5.5 Nitrogen Oxides, NOx 98 6.5.6 Hydrocarbons and Photochemical Smog 99 Contents xi 6.5.7 Sulphur Dioxide, SO2 100 6.5.8 Control of SOx Pollution 102 6.5.9 Acid Rain 102 6.5.10 Control of Acid Rain 104 6.5.11 Particulate 104 6.5.12 Control of Particulate Emissions 106 6.5.13 Air Pollution and Biosphere 106 6.5.14 Meteorology and Air Pollution 108 6.6 Air Quality Standards 109 6.7 Noise Pollution and Health 110 6.7.1 Sound and Human Acoustics 111 6.7.2 Noise Measurement Units 111 6.7.3 L10 (18 hours) Index 112 6.7.4 Effective Perceived Noise Level (L epn) 113 6.7.5 Noise Classification 113 6.7.6 Noise Pollution Hazards 115 6.7.7 Permissible Noise Levels 116 6.7.8 Control of Noise Pollution 117 6.8 Odour Pollution 117 6.8.1 Odourous Pollutants 118 6.8.2 Control of Odour Pollution 120 Key Terms and Concepts (Glossary) 120 Questions 123 7. Energy and Environment 125 7.1 Conventional Energy Resources 125 7.1.1 Coal 126 7.1.2 Thermal Power 126 7.1.3 Methanol, CH3OH 127 7.1.4 Petroleum or Mineral Oil 127 7.1.5 Hydroelectricity 128 7.1.6 Nuclear Power 130 7.1.7 Wood 131 xii Contents 7.1.8 Natural Gas 133 7.2 Non-Conventional Energy Resources 133 7.2.1 Solar Energy 133 7.2.2 Biogas 136 7.2.3 Wind Energy 137 7.2.4 Ocean and Tidal Energy 138 7.2.5 Geothermal Energy 139 7.2.6 Energy Plantation 139 Key Terms and Concepts (Glossary) 140 Questions 142 8. Environment and Public Health 143 8.1 Pollution and Public Health Issues 143 8.1.1 Hazardous Products 143 8.1.2 Occupational Hazards 146 8.1.3 Deadly Dust 146 8.1.4 Silicosis 147 8.1.5 Asbestosis 147 8.1.6 Byssinosis 148 8.1.7 Pneumoconiosis 148 8.1.8 Child labourers 148 8.2 Epidemiology 148 8.2.1 Hygiene 149 8.2.2 Health and Disease 150 8.3 Vector-Borne Diseases and their Control 151 8.3.1 Malaria 151 8.3.2 Prevention of Malaria 152 8.3.3 Treatment of Malaria 153 8.3.4 Vector Control 153 8.4 Water-Borne Diseases 155 8.4.1 Cholera 155 8.4.2 Factors for Spread of Cholera 155 8.4.3 Control of Cholera 156 8.4.4 Amoebiasis 157 Contents xiii 8.4.5 Prevention of Amoebiasis 158 8.4.6 Treatment 158 8.5 Pest Control and Management (IPM) 158 in Agriculture 8.5.1 Pesticides 159 8.5.2 Toxicity of Pesticides 160 8.5.3 Integrated Pest Management (IPM) 161 8.5.4 Biological Control 162 8.5.5 Agents of Biological Control 163 8.5.6 Biotechnological Approach 163 8.6 Element (Heavy/Light Metal) Toxicity 164 8.6.1 Toxicity of Arsenic 164 8.6.2 Antidotes for Arsenic 164 8.6.3 Toxicity of Cadmium 165 8.6.4 Toxicity of Chromium 165 8.6.5 Toxicity of Lead 165 8.6.6 Toxicity of Mercury 166 8.6.7 Remedial Measures for Mercury 167 Pollution 8.6.8 Toxicity of Some Organic Chemicals 167 (Carcinogens) Key Terms and Concepts (Glossary) 169 Questions 170 9. Waste Treatment/Management and Recycling 172 9.1 Waste Treatment 172 9.2 Waste Classification and Disposal 172 9.2.1 Solid Waste Disposal 174 9.2.2 Detoxification of Toxic Wastes 174 9.2.3 Land and Ocean Disposal 175 9.3 Non-Hazardous Waste Management 175 9.3.1 Sanitary Landfill 176 9.3.2 Composting and Municipal Waste 177 Composting Projects xiv Contents 9.3.3 Incineration 178 9.4 Ocean Dumping 179 9.5 Solid Waste Management by Biotechnology 179 Key Terms and Concepts (Glossary) 180 Questions 181 10. Environmental Policies 182 10.1 Environmental Instruments and Institutions 182 10.2 Environmental Policies 183 10.2.1 Forests 184 10.2.2 Biosphere Reserves 184 10.2.3 Flora and Wild Life 185 10.3 Environmental Laws/Acts 185 10.3.1 Forests 185 10.3.2 Wildlife 186 10.3.3 Water 187 10.3.4 Air 187 10.3.5 Environmental Impact assessment (EIA) 188 10.4 Environmental Movements 188 10.4.1 Chipko Movement 188 10.4.2 Silent Valley Movement 189 10.4.3 Narmada Dam 189 10.5 Environmental Ethics and Awareness 190 10.5.1 Environmental Awareness 191 10.5.2 Non-Government Organisations (NGOs) 193 Key Terms and Concepts (Glossary) 194 Questions 195 11. Feedback Exercise (Objective Test) 196 Questions Papers 216 Calcutta University (2003)—Science Streams 216 Calcutta University (2003)—Arts and Commerce Streams 221 Calcutta University (2004)—Arts and Commerce Streams 226 Calcutta University (2004)—Science Streams 230 Contents xv Appendices 1. The Time Scale of Evolution 234 2. The International SI Units 235 3. Drinking Water Quality Standards 236 4. Toxic Chemicals in the Environment 238 5. The Haves and Have-nots 240 6. One Earth, One Family 241 7. India’s Rank in the World 242 References 243 Index 245