Sewage pollution and microbiology

Contents 1. Introduction ......................................................... 1-11 1.1 Bioinsecticides Based on BT .................................. 4 1.2 Mode of Action of BT d-Endotoxins .. .. ..................... 5 1.3 Structure and Function of d-Endotoxins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 6 1.4 Transgenic Plants Resistant to Insects ............................................. 9 1.5 Novel Systems using BT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................... 11 1.6 Conclusion ..................................................... II 2. Water Pollution ................................................... 12-44 2.1 Types and Effects of Water Pollution ....................... 13 2.1.1 Infectious Agents .... .. ........................... 13 2.1.2 Oxygen-Demanding Wastes ...................... IS 2.1.3 Plant Nutrients and Cultural Eutrophication ... 17 2.1.4 Toxic Inorganic Materials ........................ 18 2.1.5 Organic Chemicals ............................... 21 2.1.6 Sediment ............................................ 21 2.1.7 Thermal Pollution and Thermal Shocks ......... 22 2.2 Water Quality Today .......................................... 23 2.2.1 Surface Waters in the United States and Canada 23 2.2.2 Surface Waters in Other Countries ............. 26 2.2.3 Groundwater and Drinking Water Supplies .... 28 2.2.4 Ocean Pollution .................................... 31 2.3 Water Pottution Control ...................................... 33 2.3.1 Source Reduction .................................. 33 (i) (U) CONTENTS 2.3.2 Nonpoint Sources and Land Management ...... 34 2.3.3 Human Waste Disposal ........................... 36 2.4 Water Legislation ............................................. 39 . 2.4.1 The Clean Water Act ............................. 40 2.4.2 Clean Water Act Reauthorization ............... 42 2.4.3 Other Important Water Legislation ............. 43 3. Residential Waste ..••.••..•....................••.•.•.•.•..••..•.. 45--92 3.1 Treatment and Disposal of Sewage Wastes ............................................. 45 3.1.1 Historical Perspective ............................ 45 3.1.2 Sewage Water-Its Treatment and Disposal ....................................... 48 3.1.3 Eutrophication: A Problem of Nutrient-Rich Water .............................. 64 3.1.4 Controlling Eutrophication ....................... 68 3.1.5 Controlling Inputs Vs. Treatment ............... 75 3.1.6 Cleaning Up ........................................ 77 3.2 Disposal and Recycling of Solid Wastes ................................................ 78 3.2.1 What is Solid Waste? ............................ 78 3.2.2 Means of Disposal: Past, Present and Future ................................ 00 3.2.3 Problem of Recycling .......................... ,., 83 3.2.4 Converting Municipal Solid Waste to Energy ......... , ............. ,', .. '07 3.2.5 Reducing Waste Volume ......................... 89 4. Commercial Waste ...••.....•.......................•....•.•... 93-142 4.1 Attitudes, Assumptions, and Pollution Problems .. " ............................ , ... ," 93 4.1.1 Why Do Humans Polluted? , ............ , .. , , '., , , 93 4.1.2 Assumptions Underlying the Casual Attitude Twoard Pollution ....... ,.', ... , 91 4.1.3 Limits of As<;umption ..... , ....... , ......... '., ... % 4.2 Assumptions Applied to Pollution Problems .... , ... , ..... , .................... "., ..... fJ7 4.2.1 Air Pollution ....................................... 97 CONTENTS 4.2.2 4.2.3 (iii) Water Pollution .................................. 120 Solid Wastes and Accidents .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 128 4.3 Coping With Pollution ...................................... 132 4.3.1 Recognizing Threats of Pollution......... . .... 132 4.3.2 Methods of Control. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 133 4.3.3 Implementing Controls .......................... 136 4.3.4 Pollution and Lifestyle .......................... 141 5. Sewage Treatment ............................................. 143-162 5.1 Wastes From Fossil Fuel Combustion .................... 143 5.1.1 Sulfur Dioxide ................................... 143 5.1.2 NOx, Carbon Monoxide and Unburnt Hydrocarbons. ...... . . .. ........ . . . .... 145 5.1.3 Particulates.. .... .. .. .. .. .............. ........... 147 5.1.4 Residual solids ................................... 148 5.1.5 Carbon Dioxide...... .... .............. ...... .... 148 5.2 Low-hazard Solid Wastes ................................... 149 5.3 Low-hazard Waste Waters (Sewage) ...................... 152 5.4 High-hazard Wastes ......................................... 155 5.4.1 Treatment and Disposal ........................ 156 5.4.2 International Trade in High-hazard Wastes ............................. l(() 5.5 Waste Minimisation, Cleaner Production and Integrated Waste Management ........................ 1(() 6. Environment of Microorganisms ........................... 163-180 6.1 Microorganisms and All Life's Activities ............................................. 164 6.2 Fluctuating Microorganisms ............................... 165 6.3 Marine Environments ....................................... 166 6.4 Marine Sediments ........................................... 167 6.5 Marine Ecology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 167 6.6 Classified Microorganisms. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . . ..... . . .. 168 6.7 Effects of Water and Sediment ............................ 170 6.8 Array of Microorganism..... . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .. .. . . ... . . .. . . .. 171 6.9 Chemical Reactions ......................................... 172 6.10 Microbial Modes of Life .................................. 172 6.11 Chemical Conversions ...................................... 173 (iv) CONTENTS 6.12 Microbial Ecology....... .... . ......... .... ..... ............ 173 6.13 Fixation of Nitrogen ........................................ 175 6.14 Free-living Microorganisms ............................... 176 6.15 Fixing Nitrogen in Roots of Plant........ . ... . ....... . ...... . .... ... . .. ... ... . ... 176 6.16 Utilizing Ammonia Microorganisms ............................................. 178 6.17 Nitrates and Micro-organisms ............................. 179 6.18 Microorganisms and Sulfur Compounds ...................................... 179 7. Soil Mircroorganisms ..............................•......•... 181-216 7.1 Geologic Activity on The Young Earth .................. , 183 7.2 Origin of The Earth's Atmosphere and Ocean ..................................... 186 7.2.1 Water ............................................. 186 7.2.2 Carbon Dioxide ................................. , 187 7.2.3 Oxygen ............................................ 189 7.2.4 The Next Step ................................... 1~ 7.3 Synthesis of Monomers ..................................... 191 7.3.1 Synthesis of Amino Acids, Sugars, and Bases... . . . .... .. . . . . . . . . . .. 193 7.3.2 L- and D-Amino Acids .......................... 195 7.4 Synthesis of Polymers.. ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . .. . . .. ...... 199 7.4.1 Concentration Mechanisms ..................... 201 7.4.2 Energy Sources .................................. 202 7.4.3 Catalysts ......................................... 202 7.5 Origin of The Cell ........................................... 203 7.5.1 Origin of the Organizing Mechanism ......... 205 7.5.2 RNA Quasi-Species ............................. 7fJ7 7.5.3 RNA Hypercycles ............................... 210 7.5.4 Protocells ......................................... 213 8. Commercial Microbes ........................................ 217-238 8.1 Developing an Industrial Process ............................................ 218 8.1.1 Purity and Mature of Cultures ................. 218 8.1.2 Cultural Conditions ............................. 218 CONTENTS 8.1.3 8.1.4 8.1.5 8.1.6 (v) Productive Mutants .............................. 218 Medium or Raw Material ...................... 219 Nature of the Process ........................... 219 Preliminary Experimentation .................. 219 8.2 Types of Fermentation Processes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .. 220 8.2.1 Batch Fermentation ............................. 220 8.2.2 The continuous-growth process. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 220 8.2.3 Submerged Aerobic Cultures ................... 221 8.3 Industrial Ethyl Alcohol Manufacture ........................................ 221 8.4 Alcoholic Beverage Industries ............................. 223 8.4.1 Whiskey ........................................... 223 8.4.2 Beer ............................................... 224 8.4.3 Wine .............................................. 225 8.5 Production of Butanol ....................................... 227 228 8.6 ProductionofVinegar ....................................... 228 8.6.1 Genus Acetobacter .............................. 2..10 8.7 Foods from Wastes .......................................... 230 8.7.1 Amino Acid Production ......................... 231 8.7.2 Hydrocarbons for Protein ....................... 232 8.8 Steroid Transformations .................................... 232 8.9 Enzymes of Microorganisms in Industry .................................................... 233 8.9.1 Mold-bran Process ............................... 233 8.9.2 Gibberellin (Gibberellic Acid) ................. 234 8.10 Microbiological Assay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 234 8.11 Industrial Spoilage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 237 9. Decomposers ......•............................................. 239--295 9.1 The Structure And Components Of Wood. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 239 9.2 White, Brown And Soft Rots ............................... 240 9.3 Lignin Degradation .......................................... 243 9.3.1 Role of Extracellular Phenolases .............. 243 9.3.2 Cleavage of Major Linkage Groups ........... 244 (vi) CONTENTS 9.3.3 A hypothetical scheme for lignin degradation ............................... 244 9.3.4 9.3.5 Role of Agents Other Than Enzymes ......... 245 Physical Barrier to Cellulase .................. 246 9.4 Natural Resistance To Fungal Decay ............................................ 248 9.4.1 Lignification ..................................... 248 9.4.2 Refractivity of Cellulose ....................... 248 9.4.3 Nitrogen Content ................................ 248 9.4.4 Moisture Content ................................ 249 9.4.5 Toxic Substances ................................ 250 9.5 Other Wood-Inhabiting Fungi .............................. 251 9.5.1 Blue-stain Fungi ................................. 252 9.5.2 Dutch elm disease ............................... 254 9.6 Environmental Factors ...................................... 255 9.7 Specifi.city Of Wood-Inhabiting Fungi ...................................... 256 9.8 Ecological Studies On Decaying Wood .......................................... 259 9.8.1 Pioneer Colonization Stage ..................... 259 9.8.2 Decomposition Phase ........................... 261 9.9 Decomposition And Humus In The Soil ..................................... 263 9.9.1 The Nature of Humus ........................... 265 9.9.2 Turnover of Humus in Soil ..................... 266 9.10 Fungal Decomposers of Leaves. . . .. . . . . . .. .. .. .. . . . . .. .... 266 9.10.1 The Leaf As A Spore Trap ..................... 267 9.11 Phylloplane Inhabitants ..................................... 268 9 .Il.l Nutrient Sources.. .. . .. .. .. . . . .. . .. .. .. .. .. . .. . .. 271 9.12 Common Primary Saprotrophs ............................. m 9.13 Pathogens ..................................................... 273 9.14 Exochthonous Fungi ......................................... 274 9.15 Fungi of Leaf Surface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 275 9.15.1 Microbial Interactions in the Phylloplane .................. , ................ 275 9.15.2 Fungistatic Substances Produced by Leaves .... .. ...................... 281 CONTENTS (vii) 9.16 Common Primary Saprotrophs ............................. 281 9.17 Attributes Of The Common Primary Saprotrophs ........................................ 283 9.17.1 Nutrients ......................................... 283 9.17.1 Growth Rates .................................... 286 9.17.2 Tolerance to Desiccation ....................... 286 9.17.3 Survival Structures .............................. 288 9.17.4 Subsequent Colonizers and Leaf Decay ....... 288 9.18 Decomposition Of Pine Needles ........................... 289 9.19 Litter Micro-fauna .......................................... 2fJ2