Climate change, ozone depletion and air pollution : legal commentaries within the context of science and policy

Preface .................................................................................................. xv Abbreviations ...................................................................................... xvii Official Citations for Meeting Reports .............................................. xxi Legal Instruments Cited in this Book .............................................. xxiii Part I: Science and Analysis I. Basics 1. Ozone Depletion ...................................................................... 3 A. The Ozone Layer .............................................................. 3 B. The Destruction of the Ozone Layer .............................. 4 C. The Future of the Ozone Layer ...................................... 8 2. Climate Change ........................................................................ 9 A. Historical Greenhouse Gas Concentrations ...................... 10 B. Increasing Greenhouse Gas Concentrations .................... 11 C. Future Temperature Predictions ...................................... 13 D. The Warming World ........................................................ 15 II. The Constituents of the Problems 1. The Constituents of Ozone Depletion .................................. 19 A. Chloro-fluorocarbons .......................................................... 19 B. Halons ................................................................................ 24 C. Other fully halogenated CFCs .......................................... 25 D. Carbon tetrachloride .......................................................... 25 E. Methyl Chloroform ............................................................ 26 F. Hydro-chloro-fluoro Carbons ............................................ 27 G. Hydrobromofluorocarbons and Bromochloromethane .... 28 H. Methyl bromide .................................................................. 28 I. New Chemicals .................................................................. 30 J. Overlapping Climate Change Gases ................................ 31 2. The Constituents of Climate Change .................................... 34 A. Carbon Dioxide .................................................................. 34 (i) Oceans .......................................................................... 35 (ii) Terrestrial Ecosystems ................................................ 39 (iii) Sources and Amounts of Anthropogenic Emissions of CO2 .......................................................................... 42(iv) Two Views of Contribution: Sovereign and Per-capita Emissions .................................................. 44 B. Methane ............................................................................ 47 C. Nitrous Dioxide ................................................................ 49 D. Overlapping Pollutants ...................................................... 50 (i) Aerosols ...................................................................... 50 (ii) Ozone Depleting Substances .................................... 51 3. The Constituents of Air Pollution ........................................ 53 A. Sulphur Dioxide ................................................................ 53 B. Suspended Particle Matter .............................................. 57 C. Oxides of Nitrogen .......................................................... 59 D. Low-level Ozone .............................................................. 60 E. Volatile Organic Carbons ................................................ 62 F. Carbon Monoxide ............................................................ 63 G. Ammonia .......................................................................... 65 H. Lead .................................................................................. 66 I. The Transboundary Nature of Air Pollution ................ 67 III. Natural and Anthropogenic Influences 1. Ozone Depletion .................................................................... 69 2. Climate Change ...................................................................... 71 3. Air Pollution ............................................................................ 72 IV. The Calculation of Pollutants 1. Cumulative Approaches .......................................................... 75 2. Pollution Potential .................................................................. 77 3. Reporting Considerations and Anomalies ............................ 81 V. Impacts 1. Air Pollution ............................................................................ 87 A. Impacts upon Humans .................................................... 87 B. Impacts upon the Environment ...................................... 93 C. Impacts upon the Cultural Environment ........................ 97 2. Ozone Depletion .................................................................... 98 A. Impacts upon Humans .................................................... 98 B. Impacts upon the Environment ...................................... 101 C. Impacts upon Materials .................................................... 103 3. Climate Change ...................................................................... 103 A. Food .................................................................................. 105 B. Fresh Water ...................................................................... 108 C. Increases in Sea Levels and Coastal Stress .................... 108 D. Storms, Cyclones and Tornadoes .................................... 112C. Exceptions for Essential Uses of ODS ............................ 170 (i) Exceptions for CFCs .................................................. 172 (ii) Exceptions for Halons ................................................ 174 (iii) Exceptions for Methyl Bromide ................................ 176 D. Targets Within Overlapping International Organizations ...................................................................... 178 E. Promoting Technological Change within the Ozone Regime ................................................................................ 178 2. Reductions in Greenhouse Gases ............................................ 179 A. The International Response to Climate Change ............ 179 B. The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change .................................................................. 181 C. The 1997 Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change .................. 184 D. Commitments for Developing Countries under the Kyoto Protocol .................................................................... 186 E. Targets for Substances with Ozone Depleting and Global Warming Potential ................................................ 189 F. Overlapping International Organizations ........................ 190 3. Reductions in Air Pollutants .................................................. 191 A. Controlling Air Pollution .................................................. 191 B. The LRTAP Regime ........................................................ 193 C. Outside of the LRTAP Regime ........................................ 196 D. Air Quality Standards ........................................................ 198 E. Overlapping International Organizations ........................ 199 F. Domestically Mobile Sources of Air Pollution ................ 200 4. The Provision of Renewable, Efficient and Cleaner Energy ...................................................................................... 204 A. Technological Choice ........................................................ 204 B. Renewable Energy .............................................................. 205 C. Energy Efficiency ................................................................ 207 D. Fuel Switching .................................................................... 209 5. Base Years ................................................................................ 210 6. Banking ...................................................................................... 212 X. Compliance 1. The Ozone Regime ................................................................ 215 A. The Committee .................................................................. 217 B. The Process of Investigation .............................................. 217 C. Penalties .............................................................................. 218 D. Minor Difficulties ................................................................ 219 E. Substantial Difficulties ........................................................ 2. The Air Pollution Regime .................................................. 226 A. The Implementation Committee of the LRTAP Regime ............................................................................ 227 B. Non-Compliance Within the LRTAP Regime ............ 229 3. The Climate Change Regime ............................................ 231 A. Reporting Commitments .............................................. 231 B. Review ............................................................................ 233 C. Implementation .............................................................. 236 D. Substantive Non-compliance ........................................ 237 XI. The Evolutionary Nature of the Instruments 1. The LRTAP and its Protocols .......................................... 241 2. The Ozone Instruments ...................................................... 242 3. The Climate Change Regime ............................................ 244 XII. Financing the Regimes 1. Core Costs ............................................................................ 249 2. Scientific Costs .................................................................... 251 XIII. Country Groupings and Classifications 1. The Ozone Regime ............................................................ 253 A. Developing Countries .................................................... 253 B. Countries in Economic Transition .............................. 254 C. Developing Countries within the Vienna Convention and the Montreal Protocol ............................................ 254 2. The Air Pollution Regime .................................................. 256 3. The Climate Change Regime ............................................ 258 A. Countries with Obligations to Control their Greenhouse Gas Emissions ............................................ 258 B. Countries in Economic Transition .............................. 259 C. Developing Countries .................................................... 259 D. The Least Developed Countries .................................. 260 E. Small Island States ........................................................ 261 F. Countries with a Dependence on the Sale of Fossil Fuels ...................................................................... 261 XIV. Non-Governmental Organizations 1. NGOs in the Ozone Regime ............................................ 263 2. NGOs in the Climate Regime .......................................... 265 3. NGOs in the Air Pollution Regime .................................. 268 XV. Funding Assistance 1. Ozone Funding Considerations ........................................ 269 A. Financial Assistance under the Auspice of the Montreal Protocol ...................................................... 269 B. The Size of the Fund ................................................ 270 C. The Generating Mechanism ...................................... 272 D. Incremental Costs and the Choice of Projects for Funding ........................................................................ 272 E. Composition of the Executive and the Role of Other International Organizations ............................ 273 2. Climate Funding ................................................................ 276 A. Precedents and Evolution .......................................... 276 B. Size of the Various Funds and Generating Mechanisms .................................................................. 277 C. Management of the Funds ........................................ 278 D. Funding Objectives ...................................................... 280 (i) Article 4(1) and Capacity Building .................... 281 (ii) National Communications .................................. 284 (iii) Adaptation to Climate Change .......................... 284 (iv) Vulnerable Countries: The Least Developed Countries and Small Island States ...................... 286 XVI. Technology Transfer 1. The LRTAP Regime ........................................................ 290 2. The Ozone Regime .......................................................... 291 3. Climate Change ................................................................ 292 XVII. Flexibility Mechanisms 1. Joint Implementation ........................................................ 297 A. The Air Pollution Regime .......................................... 297 B. The Ozone Regime .................................................... 297 C. The Climate Regime .................................................. 299 2. Bubbling ............................................................................ 304 3. The Clean Development Mechanism .............................. 306 4. Emission Trading .............................................................. 311 A. The Precedents of Domestic Air Pollution .............. 311 B. Emissions Trading in Climate Change .................... 312 XVIII. Trade Related Issues 1. Air Pollution and Climate Concerns .............................. 317 2. The Ozone Experience .................................................... 318 A. Products Containing ODS ........................................ 319 B. Products Produced with, but not Containing ODS .... 320 C. Non-Parties .................................................................... 320 D. The Trade In Recycled ODS .................................... 321 E. Illegally Traded ODS & The Licensing Solution .... 322 Part III: Options XIX. Technological Efficiency and Change 1. Technological Change ........................................................ 327 2. Efficiency ............................................................................ 327 3. Alternatives to Ozone Depleting Substances .................. 329 4. Efficiency, Recycling and Destruction of Ozone Depleting Substances .......................................................... 334 5. New Energy Sources: Wind, Oceans, Solar and Nuclear ................................................................................ 337 6. Substitution of Fuel Within Existing Energy Sources .... 344 7. Modification of Technology for Stationary Sources ........ 346 8. Modification or Change of Technology for Mobile Sources ................................................................................ 348 9. Efficiencies that Reduce Air and Climate Pollutants ...... 350 XX. The Limits of Efficiencies and Change With Technological Options 1. Alternative New Energy Sources ...................................... 355 A. Nuclear .......................................................................... 355 B. Non-Nuclear New Energy Sources ............................ 363 2. Technological Limits for Air Pollution and Climate Change ................................................................................ 365 A. Stationary Sources ........................................................ 365 B. Mobile Sources ............................................................ 366 3. Alternatives in the Ozone Regime .................................. 371 XXII. Sinks 1. The Possibilities of Sinks .................................................. 373 A. Sequestration in the Ocean ........................................ 373 B. Sequestration On Land ................................................ 374 2. Sinks Within the FCCC and Kyoto Protocol ................ 376 3. Sinks in the post-Kyoto Context ...................................... 378 A. Commitment Periods .................................................... 378 B. Overall Claim Potential .............................................. 378 C. “Since 1990” ................................................................ 380 D. Scientific Uncertainty .................................................. 380 E. Forestation & Deforestation ........................................ 383 F. Additional Activities ...................................................... 386 G. LULUCF and the Flexibility Mechanisms ................ 388 Index .................................................................................................... 389