Constructing a pipe-bound city : a history of water supply, sewerage, and excreta removal in Norrköping and Linköping, Sweden, 1860-1910

Foreword 9 Introduction 11 Problematique and Aim 12 The Urban Arena: Historical and Academic Context 13 Industrialization, Urbanization, and Revolution 13 The Urban Environment, the Poor, and Public Health 14 Modern Water and Wastewater Technologies 17 Urban History of Governance, Health, Environment, and Technology 18 The Construction of Urban Filth in the Late 19th Century 21 Studies of Urban Pollution and Purity in the Realm of Cultural History 23 Swedish Politics and Industrialization 24 The Swedish Urban Environment, Public Health, and Sanitary Technology 27 Swedish Urban and Cultural History Studies of Sanitary Public Works 27 The Local Context – Norrkِping and Linkِping 29 Social, Economic, and Political Life in Norrkِping and Linkِping 30 Theoretical and Methodological Framework 39 The Constructivist Study of Technology 39 Actor-Network Theory, Power, and Heterogeneity 42 Actor-Networks and Ideology 49 Actor-Network Theory, Relativism, and Cultural Reductionism 50 Operationalizing Actor-Network Theory in Local Technological Projects 51 The Main Questions 52 Method 53 Delimitations and Primary Source Material 54 Part I: Technology and Organization 59 Swedish Civil Engineering and British Technology Transfer 59 The General Swedish Development of Modern Water Supply and Sewerage 57 Breaking Down the Main Question 61 The Actors and their Possible Interests 61 CHAPTER 1: Managing Water and Sewerage in Norrkِping 63 Traditional Water Supply and Drainage 63 Fire and Water 64 The Local Newspaper and the “Generosity of a Magnanimous Donor” 66 The Swartz Family and its Concerns for Piped Water 75 Leijonancker’s Proposal Postponed 79 The Shaping of a New Water Supply Project 83 The Reluctant Enlistment of Sewerage 92 Richert’s Actor-Network and the Building and Administration of Water Supply and Sewerage 95 Municipal Administration of Water Supply and Sewerage - The Waterworks Board 96 The Afterglow of the Water Project: Technical Extension and Organization in the Years to Come 103 Conclusion 120 CHAPTER 2: Administering Water and Wastewater in Linkِping 122 Traditional Water Supply and Drainage 122 The First Plans for Piped Water Supply 124 Fredrik Stهnggren’s Presentation and the Approved Proposals 128 Profitable Water and Undesirable Wastewater: Building and Administering the Systems 137 Building, Administering, and Selling Water - The Water Company and the City Council 137 Reluctant Administration of Sewerage - the City Council and the Water Company 146 Technical Extension and Organization in the Years to Come 151 New Water and Wastewater Challenges in the 20th Century 154 Conclusion 165 Part II: Geography 168 Main Question and Sub-Questions 168 Actors and Interests 169 CHAPTER 3: Urban Growth and Geographical Extension of Water and Wastewater in Norrkِping 170 Water and Sewerage Extension Within the City’s Jurisdiction – Planned Areas and a Suburb 170 The Planned Area and New Building Lots 170 Norrkِping’s Southern Suburb – A Nice Middle-Class Area 176 The Expansion of Water Supply and Sewerage to the Southern Suburb 177 Reaching Out or Holding Back? – Water and Sewerage Outside the City Border 181 The Northern Suburb – a Shanty Town 181 The Expansion of Water Supply and Sewerage to the Northern Suburb 182 The Question of Incorporation 189 The Escalation of the Conflict in the 1890s and Early 1900s 190 The Early 20th Century and New Solutions 197 Conclusion 202 CHAPTER 4: Growing Pains and Geographical Expansion of Water and Sewerage in Linkِping 204 Completing the Water and Sewerage Within the City 204 Sprawling Water and Sewerage: Extensions Outside the City 210 The Suburbs of Linkِping 210 The Power of the City Border – The Question of Ladugهrdsbacke 211 The Question of Incorporating Ladugهrdsbacke 215 Stolplyckan and Tinnerbنckslyckan 217 Conclusion 227 Part III: Function 229 The Question of Cleaning up the Cities – the European Context 229 The Constructor’s Intentions 231 Main Question and More Questions 233 Actors and Interests 233 CHAPTER 5: The Healthiest City in Europe? The Question of Keeping Norrkِping Clean 235 Local and National Health Legislation 235 Cemented Cesspits for the Storage of Excreta 236 The Early History of Water Closets in Norrkِping 239 The Debate about Excreta Management Initiated 240 The 1885 Inspection of the National Board of Health 249 The Local Debate About Excreta Collection and Water Closets until 1895 251 The Water Closet at a Crossroads – Contamination or Dilution? 257 Gradual Acceptance of WC’s and Continued Debate of other Alternatives 1895-1910 263 The 20th Century and the Victory of the Water Closet 267 Epilogue 271 Conclusion 272 CHAPTER 6: Excreta Down the Drain? The Question of Keeping Linkِping Clean 274 National Health Legislation and the Linkِping Board of Health 274 Sewered Cesspits and Public Health Aspirations 276 The Local Sanitary Investigation, 1882-1885 281 The Aftermath of the Investigation – A Lengthy Public-Health Debate 286 The Public Health Debate Comes to a Close 290 Implementing the Sanitary Regulations in the 1890s 291 The Question of the Health Police 292 The Early 1900s and Municipal Takeover of Excreta Collection 294 Sewer Regulations and the Water Closets 298 Conclusion 299 Concluding Analysis 301 Evolution of the Local Actor-Networks Prior to 1880 302 Water Supply and Sewerage 302 The Local Actor-Networks after 1880 307 Water Supply and Sewerage 307 Management of Excreta 314 Norrkِping and Linkِping in a National and International Context 320 Summary 332 List of Abbreviations 335 Appendix 1 336 Appendix 2 338 Appendix 3 341 References 343