Light's labour's lost : policies for energy-efficient lighting ; in support of the G8 plan of action

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 OVERVIEW AND RECOMMENDATIONS . . . . . . . 31 THE MEANING OF LIGHT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 So what is the meaning of light? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 IN THE EYE OF THE BEHOLDER: HUMAN FACTORS IN LIGHTING. . . . . . . . . . . . 67 To see or not to see . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 Human response to light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 What is light and how do we see? 69 Lighting quality: a primary driver of lighting energy needs 74 Lighting guidelines and design criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 Recommended illuminance levels and implications for lighting energy demand 85 Uniformity, surface reflectance, colour rendering and glare thresholds 94 Discussion 97 THESE LOVELY LAMPS: LIGHTING TECHNOLOGIES AND DESIGN . . . . . 99 These windows of the soul . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 General performance characteristics of lighting technologies . . . . 101 Efficacy, lumen maintenance and temperature 101 Rated lamp life and useful lamp life 104 Lamp colour characteristics 105 Lamp types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 Incandescent lamps 110 Tungsten halogen lamps 112 Linear fluorescent lamps 115 Compact fluorescent lamps 119 3 2 1 8 TABLE OF CONTENTS Cold-cathode fluorescent lamps 123 Low-pressure sodium lamps 124 High-intensity discharge lamps 125 Induction lamps 130 Vehicle lamps 132 Summary of lamp characteristics 134 Control gear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 Ballasts 137 Lighting-control systems 141 Fixtures and luminaires. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 Daylighting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 Energy savings from daylighting Daylighting components and design solutions LAZY LUMENS: THE ENERGY USED BY LIGHTING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 Why the lumens are lazy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 Efforts to estimate global lighting energy consumption 168 A note on the current methodology 169 Lighting markets: light, energy, economic and environmental characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172 Global light consumption, energy use, costs and CO2 emissions 173 Residential lighting 183 Commercial sector 209 Industrial sector 234 Outdoor lighting 237 Vehicle lighting 241 The business of light: global illumination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250 The lamp industry 251 The lighting market 257 The potential for energy savings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266 What technology opportunities are available? 269 Lighting energy savings in non-résidential case studies 275 Previous savings estimates 277 4 162 164 9 TABLE OF CONTENTS Barriers to energy-efficient lighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285 Common barriers 286 Matching policy interventions to barriers 290 BLAZING THE TRAIL: POLICIES AND PROGRAMMES FOR ENERGY-EFFICIENT LIGHTING 297 Measure for measure: an introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297 Government policies and programmes: common types 298 Policies to improve lighting-component efficiency. . . . . . . . . . . . . 309 Australia and New Zealand 312 OECD Europe 317 Japan 323 Korea 326 North America 330 China 342 Other non-OECD countries 344 Energy performance building codes and certification policies . . . . 345 United States 345 Europe 354 Other OECD and non-OECD countries 362 Review of other energy-efficiency programmes influencing lighting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365 Market-transformation programmes 365 Utility programmes 373 Other instruments 377 International initiatives 383 Policies to encourage better use of daylight 387 Daylight-saving time 387 LIGHT’S LABOUR’S FOUND: THE IMPACT OF CURRENT AND FUTURE POLICIES . . . . . . . . 389 Beacons of hope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389 Impact of current policies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390 Estimating consequences of current policies 390 6 5 10 TABLE OF CONTENTS Assumptions and data for the Current Policies and No Policies scenarios 393 Projected energy trends and impacts of current policies 398 Costs and benefits of current policies 407 Impact of future policies: aiming for LLCC efficiency levels from 2008 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409 Assumptions for the LLCC from 2008 scenario 410 Projected energy trends and impacts of the LLCC from 2008 scenario 415 Costs and benefits of the LLCC from 2008 scenario 418 Projected trends in vehicle lighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422 Vehicle-lighting fuel-use scenarios 423 Conclusions 427 O’LED WHERE ART THOU? EMERGING SOLID-STATE LIGHTING TECHNOLOGIES AND OPPORTUNITIES. . . . . 433 The state of the art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434 Physical principles and performance characteristics 434 SSL applications 448 The LED market 460 The “Great White Hope” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461 Energy savings, technology targets and investment 461 Quantum dots: a leap in the light? 465 LEDs for fuel lighting: a fast track to clean development? 466 Why it might not happen: the barriers to be overcome 471 OLED where art thou?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473 Lifting the LED wait: policies and programmes to accelerate SSL . . . 474 International R&D programmes for SSL 475 Into the light: some recommendations 477 THE AGE OF ENLIGHTENMENT: FUTURE STRATEGIES FOR ENERGY-EFFICIENT LIGHTING . . . . . . . . . . . 479 At the end of the tunnel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480 Policy objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481 8 7 Procedural objectives 482 Situational objectives 482 Technology objectives 484 Development objectives 487 Summary of policy objectives 488 Lessons learned from current and past efforts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488 Programmes for the future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 504 Government programmes 505 Government–industry partnerships 513 Utility and energy-service programmes 514 International co-operation 515 Explicit policy recommendations 517 GLOSSARY 521 ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS . . . . . . . . 531