Young drivers : the road to safety.

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ........................................................................................................... 13 INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................................ 23 Chapter 1. THE PROBLEM OF YOUNG, NOVICE DRIVERS ........................................ 25 1.1. Introduction.............................................................................................................. 26 1.2. Young Driver Crash Data........................................................................................ 27 1.3. Quantifying the Problem......................................................................................... 36 1.4. Basic Characteristics of Young, Novice Driver Risk.............................................. 36 1.4.1. Age and experience........................................................................................ 36 1.4.2. Gender differences......................................................................................... 40 1.5. The Specifics of Young, Novice Driver Crashes ..................................................... 43 1.5.1. Single-vehicle crashes, loss-of-control and turning across oncoming traffic ................................................................................. 43 1.5.2. High-speed crashes........................................................................................ 43 1.5.3. Time of day .................................................................................................... 45 1.5.4. Fatigue .......................................................................................................... 48 1.5.5. Alcohol and drugs ......................................................................................... 49 1.5.6. Passengers ..................................................................................................... 51 1.5.7. Non-use of seat belts...................................................................................... 53 1.6. The Costs of Young Driver Risk.............................................................................. 54 1.7. Countries at Different Levels of Motorisation........................................................ 57 1.8. Conclusions............................................................................................................... 58 Chapter 2. YOUNG DRIVERS’ BEHAVIOUR AND RISK EXPOSURE: FACTORS BEHIND THE PROBLEM ...............................................................67 2.1. Introduction.............................................................................................................. 68 2.2. General “Nature” and “Nurture” Aspects of Young, Novice Driver Risk............ 69 2.2.1. Biological factors........................................................................................... 69 2.2.2. Differences between men and women ........................................................... 70 2.2.3. Personality ..................................................................................................... 73 2.2.4. Social norms .................................................................................................. 75 2.2.5. Driving behaviour and vehicles as tools for achieving goals in life .............. 76 2.3. Acute Impairments .................................................................................................. 78 2.3.1. Alcohol .......................................................................................................... 78 2.3.2. Drugs ............................................................................................................. 79 2.3.3. Fatigue .......................................................................................................... 81 2.3.4. Distraction ..................................................................................................... 81 2.3.5. Emotions........................................................................................................ 82 8 – TABLE OF CONTENTS YOUNG DRIVERS: THE ROAD TO SAFETY – ISBN 92-821-1334-5 - © ECMT, 2006 2.4. The Acquisition of Driving Skills ............................................................................ 83 2.4.1. General learning factors................................................................................ 84 2.4.2. Skill acquisition and mental workload .......................................................... 85 2.4.3. Visual search skills ........................................................................................ 87 2.4.4. Hazard perception ......................................................................................... 88 2.5. The Willingness to Drive Safely and Self-Assessment ............................................ 90 2.5.1. Motivation to drive safely .............................................................................. 90 2.5.2. Overconfidence and risk assessment ............................................................. 92 2.6. Risk-Enhancing Factors .......................................................................................... 93 2.6.1. Task demands/exposure................................................................................. 93 2.6.2. Vehicle choice................................................................................................ 94 2.7. Conclusions............................................................................................................... 95 Chapter 3. COUNTERMEASURES.................................................................................... 115 3.1. Introduction............................................................................................................ 116 3.2. Issues Regarding Group Selection, Outcome Criteria and the Value of Evaluation Studies............................................................................. 116 3.2.1. Target groups and subgroups ...................................................................... 116 3.2.2. Assessment of the effectiveness of given countermeasures ......................... 117 3.3. The Impact of General Road Safety Measures on Young Driver Risk ................ 118 3.4. Classification of Licensing Systems in Use and Current Trends ......................... 120 3.4.1. Current trends in licensing systems............................................................. 121 3.4.2. Traditional and probationary licensing systems.......................................... 122 3.4.3. Graduated licensing systems (GDL) ............................................................ 123 3.5. Effectiveness of Individual Elements in the Licensing Process............................ 125 3.5.1. Licensing age for solo driving ..................................................................... 126 3.5.2. Objectives and methods of training, practice and gaining experience ........ 127 Training objectives to create safe drivers (GDE Matrix) Formal pre-licence training Informal pre-licence training (accompanied driving) Advanced training 3.5.3. The driving test as a selection instrument ................................................... 136 Hazard perception test 3.5.4. The relationship between training objectives, training and tests................. 138 3.6. Protective Measures for Solo Driving ................................................................... 140 3.6.1. Zero alcohol limits....................................................................................... 140 3.6.2. Night-time driving curfews .......................................................................... 141 3.6.3. Driving without peer-age passengers........................................................... 143 3.6.4. Power/weight ratio of vehicles ..................................................................... 143 3.6.5. Lower speed limits ....................................................................................... 144 3.6.6. Mobile telephone use ................................................................................... 144 TABLE OF CONTENTS - 9 YOUNG DRIVERS: THE ROAD TO SAFETY – ISBN 92-821-1334-5 - © ECMT, 2006 3.7. Influencing Safety Motivation in Solo Driving ..................................................... 145 3.7.1. Driver safety education in schools............................................................... 145 3.7.2. Enforcement ................................................................................................ 146 Speed Drink-driving Drug-driving 3.7.3. (Dis)Incentives............................................................................................. 149 Special demerit point systems Insurance-based schemes 3.7.4. Persuasive communication.......................................................................... 151 3.7.5. The role of parents and other adult role models.......................................... 153 3.7.6. Informal social controls for drink and drug-driving ................................... 155 3.7.7. Automobile advertising................................................................................ 157 3.7.8. Entertainment media and video games........................................................ 158 3.8. Young Male Drivers: In Search of Effective Measures ....................................... 159 3.9. A Survey of Experts’ Views on the Potential Effectiveness of Countermeasures ......................................................... 160 3.10. Conclusions............................................................................................................. 162 Chapter 4. AREAS FOR NEW IMPROVEMENTS........................................................... 179 4.1. Introduction............................................................................................................ 180 4.2. Non-regulatory Measures ...................................................................................... 180 4.3. Technology-based Solutions .................................................................................. 181 4.3.1. Education and training tools ....................................................................... 182 Simulators E-learning 4.3.2. Access systems ............................................................................................. 183 Smart cards Alco-locks (Interlocks) Seat belt systems 4.3.3. Support for the driving process ................................................................... 184 Intelligent Speed Adaptation (ISA) Adaptive Cruise Control (ACC) Electronic Stability Control (ESC) 4.3.4. Monitoring systems...................................................................................... 185 Driving Data Storage Unit 4.4. Conclusions............................................................................................................. 186 10 – TABLE OF CONTENTS YOUNG DRIVERS: THE ROAD TO SAFETY – ISBN 92-821-1334-5 - © ECMT, 2006 Chapter 5. WHICH ACTIONS TO TAKE? ....................................................................... 191 5.1. Introduction............................................................................................................ 192 5.2. Overview of Key Risk Factors ............................................................................... 192 5.2.1. Experience, age and gender ........................................................................ 192 5.3. Key Policy Options................................................................................................. 195 5.3.1. Period prior to licensing: Increasing pre-licence accompanied driving............................................... 196 5.3.2. Post licensing period: Gaining increased experience in safer driving conditions ............................................................................ 197 5.4. Which Actions to Take: Key General Actions/Enforcement Measures .............. 198 5.4.1. Speeding ...................................................................................................... 198 5.4.2. Drink-driving............................................................................................... 199 5.4.3. Seat belt wearing ......................................................................................... 199 5.4.4. Drugs ........................................................................................................... 199 5.5. Which Actions to Take: Young Driver-Specific Measures .................................. 200 5.5.1. Drink-driving: More stringent Blood Alcohol Content (BAC) limits .......... 200 5.5.2. Night-time driving curfews .......................................................................... 201 5.5.3. Restrictions on driving with peer-age passengers........................................ 201 5.5.4. Special demerit point systems ...................................................................... 202 5.5.5. Special plates for young and novice drivers ................................................ 202 5.6. Other General Measures........................................................................................ 202 5.6.1. Increase overall safety levels, with particular emphasis on areas where young people are over-represented..................................... 202 5.6.2. Improve national licensing systems............................................................. 203 5.6.3. Explore the use of technology to control access to, support and monitor solo driving immediately after licensing ................................. 204 5.6.4. Proactively employ persuasive communication........................................... 204 5.6.5. Consider the road safety implications of other public policy decisions ....... 204 5.7. How Well Will These General and Young Driver-Specific Measures Deal with Young Male Driver Risks?................................................... 204 5.8. Timelines for Action............................................................................................... 205 5.9. Prioritising.............................................................................................................. 205 5.10. The Young Driver Strategy ................................................................................... 205 5.11. Conclusions............................................................................................................. 206 TABLE OF CONTENTS - 11 YOUNG DRIVERS: THE ROAD TO SAFETY – ISBN 92-821-1334-5 - © ECMT, 2006 Chapter 6. MANAGING CHANGE .................................................................................... 209 6.1. Introduction............................................................................................................ 210 6.2. Barriers to Change ................................................................................................. 210 6.3. Managing Change .................................................................................................. 211 6.3.1. Research ...................................................................................................... 212 6.3.2. Political leadership ...................................................................................... 212 6.3.3. Co-ordination among different areas of government .................................. 213 6.3.4. Consultation with stakeholders and the community.................................... 213 6.3.5. Communication campaigns ......................................................................... 216 6.3.6. Transition and flexibility ............................................................................. 217 6.3.7. Resource issues............................................................................................ 218 6.4. Conclusions ............................................................................................................. 219 Chapter 7. YOUNG DRIVERS IN COUNTRIES AT DIFFERENT LEVELS OF MOTORISATION....................................................................... 223 7.1. Introduction............................................................................................................ 224 7.2. Global Young Driver Risk..................................................................................... 224 7.3. Knowledge Transfer to Non-OECD/ECMT Countries ........................................ 228 7.4. Conclusions............................................................................................................. 228 Chapter 8. SUMMARY OF CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS................. 231 ANNEX A. Driver Licensing Systems Around the World................................................... 239 ANNEX B. Working Group Members and Experts Consulted .......................................... 259