آلودگی خاک با فلزات سمی در نزدیک یک پناهگاه در جزیره روبرت، سرزمین جنوبی دریایی: یک استراتژی نظارتی Soil Contamination by Toxic Metals Near an Antarctic Refuge in Robert Island, Maritime Antarctica: A Monitoring Strategy

1 Introduction The Antarctic continent plays a key role in the global climate dynamics, expressed as atmospheric and oceanic circulations, having the greatest reservoir, containing 90% of the world’s available freshwater. This continent has 14 million square kilometers, but only 0.5% are icefree areas, where biological and human activities are concentrated (Campbell and Claridge 1987). Although Antarctica is seen as the last unexplored region on Earth and as a worldwide conservation symbol,itis not free from anthropogenic impacts, either by atmospheric, long-range pollutants, or promoted by local activities, such as those related to logistic operations, and scientific stations (Bargagli 2005; Braun et al. 2012; De Moreno et al. 1997; Guerra et al. 2013; Tin et al. 2009). The Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty, better known as the Madrid Protocol, was signed in 1991 as a legal agreement between the countries towards the mitigation of anthropogenic impacts in Antarctica. More specifically, this instrument also provides guidelines for regulating human activities through environmental monitoring and solid waste management. Another important attribute of the Madrid Protocol is the designation of restricted sites, known as the Antarctic Specially Protected Areas (ASPAs), where more rigid rules are imposed given their environmental, scientific, historical, and/or aesthetic values (Ministry of the Environment Government of Japan 2003). Several studies have dealt with the environmental monitoring in Antarctica (Cabrerizo et al. 2016; De Moreno et al. 1997; Guerra et al. 2011a; Jerez et al. 2013; Poblet et al. 1997; Préndez and Carrasco 2003), and a substantial part of them have elected soil as the target compartment (Amaro et al. 2015; Guerra et al. 2011b, c, 2012, 2013; Santos et al. 2005; Sheppard et al. 2000) given its peculiar characteristic of being the main sink of contaminants released into the terrestrial ecosystems by anthropogenic activities (Wuana and Okieimen 2011). In these studies, the principal sites investigated are those in the neighborhood of the scientific stations. Tin et al. (2009) reviewed the scientific literature on the anthropic impacts in the Antarctic ecosystem. They highlighted that the most commonly found contaminants are those related to fuel spills, potentially toxic elements (arsenic, cadmium, copper, lead, mercury, and zinc), and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). A long list of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) also deserves special attention such as flame-retardants, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), and polychlorinated dibenzodioxins (PCDDs). The main sources of such chemicals are most likely to be the runoff from abandoned waste disposal sites, sewage systems, and emissions from burning fuel.