رهبری اخلاقی مانعی برای زورگویی در محل کار در سراسر شرق و غرب: بررسی عدالت تعاملی Can ethical leadership inhibit workplace bullying across East and West: Exploring cross-cultural interactional justice as a mediating mechanism

1. Introduction Workplace bullying commonly refers to a situation in which one or more employees of weaker power are regularly and repeatedly exposed to unethical and unreasonable behaviours at work which they find difficult to escape or defend themselves against (Branch, Ramsay, & Barker, 2013; Einarsen, Hoel, Zapf, & Cooper, 2011; Harvey, Treadway, Heames, & Duke, 2009). According to reliable international estimates, up to 18% of the global workforce is exposed to bullying at work (see Nielsen, Matthiesen, & Einarsen, 2010 for a review). Research has also shown detrimental implications of workplace bullying on those exposed to it, in the form of elevated stress levels and increased sickness absenteeism, leading to a decline in organisational productivity and, ultimately, economic output (Bonde et al., 2016; Nielsen & Einarsen, 2012; Samnani & Singh, 2012). The prevalent nature and serious implications of workplace bullying warrant research that advances understanding of the management of such behaviour (Matthiesen & Einarsen, 2010; Nielsen, 2014; Nielsen et al., 2010). A recent study observed: “Such persistence and harm suggests a challenge for organisational leadership to tackle the issue proactively and initiate a cultural change driven by moral norms and enforcement of ethical standards” (Ahmad & Sheehan, 2017, p. 21). Knowledge on the prevention and management of workplace bullying is recognised as a ‘black box’ in the literature (Einarsen, Skogstad, Rørvik, Lande, & Nielsen, 2016, Nielsen, 2014); however, specifically in regard to leadership, ethical leadership style has emerged as a critical inhibiting factor (Stouten et al., 2010; Yamada, 2008). Ethical leadership is defined as “the demonstration of normatively appropriate conduct through personal actions and interpersonal relationships, and the promotion of such conduct to followers through two-way communication, reinforcement, and decision-making” (Brown, Trevino, ~ & Harrison, 2005, p. 120). This leadership style is particularly associated with the regulation of moral norms and enforcement of ethical standards at work (Brown & Trevino, 2006; Mayer, Aquino, Greenbaum, ~ & Kuenzi, 2012). Furthermore, Einarsen et al. (2016, p. 8) have emphasised that “it is of the upmost importance for both exposed individuals and organisations that we seek knowledge on preventive measures against bullying and how the effectiveness of these measures may, or may not, vary between national cultures”. The purpose of this paper is therefore to advance the understanding of why and how workplace bullying can be effectively addressed across cultures through ethical leadership. While considerable progress has been made in understanding the role of leadership in workplace bullying, research has maintained a primary focus on those leadership styles that trigger and escalate this behaviour (Einarsen, Skogstad, & Glasø, 2013, pp. 129e154; Nielsen, 2013). This has been restated by WarszewskaMakuch, Bedynska, and _ Zołnierczyk-Zreda (2015, p. 130): “there is little research into the positive role of leadership in reducing pathological phenomena such as workplace bullying in organisations.” Moreover, extant research has been predominantly conducted in Western countries (Francioli et al., 2015; Nielsen, 2013), where cultures drastically differ from those in Eastern countries; a notable example of these differences is the higher individualistic values prevailing in the West (Hofstede, 2001; House, Hanges, Javidan, Dorfman, & Gupta, 2004). Viewing such cultural differences in the light of contemporary trends towards internationally connected workplaces, the significance of research that examines the effectiveness of leadership style(s) in managing employee behaviour across Eastern and Western contexts becomes apparent (see House et al., 2004). Workplace bullying is internationally recognised as representing unacceptable conduct, because it violates moral norms of respect and dignity at work (Bolton, 2007; Harvey et al., 2009; Samnani & Singh, 2012). Yet it is prevalent across cultures around the world (Nielsen et al., 2010; Power et al., 2013). This is because, beyond socio-cultural contexts, a negative work environment is identified as a major cause of workplace bullying (Einarsen, 1999; Hauge, Skogstad, & Einarsen, 2007; Leymann, 1996; Salin, 2008).