برنامه ریزی استراتژیک و بلند مدت زیرساخت های شارژ سریع بین شهری برای وسایل نقلیه الکتریک باتری دار Long-term strategic planning of inter-city fast charging infrastructure for battery electric vehicles

1. Introduction Promoting battery electric vehicles (BEV) is deemed an effective solution to help the United States reduce its dependency on imported oil and improve its competitive position in the emerging era of renewable energy market. Several agencies have enacted incentive policies to promote the mass adoption of BEVs. These policies include the Federal American Recovery and Reinvestment Act (ARRA) tax program, California’s Zero Emission Vehicle (ZEV) Action Plan, and the Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) standards. Encouraged by these policies and standards, manufacturers are actively developing affordable BEVs with low manufacturing costs and plausible vehicle performance (e.g., vehicle range and power) (EPA et al., 2016). All these efforts by agencies and manufacturers contribute to success in the current BEV market. In particular, plug-in electric vehicles (PEVs, including both BEVs and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs)) garner about 1% of today’s total sales (Davis et al., 2016). To be fully competitive with conventional vehicles (CVs, such as gasoline vehicles), “range anxiety” concerns have to be resolved. Range anxiety, as the name suggests, is the fear of insufficient range to reach destinations (Eberle and von Helmolt, 2010). Unlike PHEVs, which can have unlimited range by running on conventional fuels, BEVs can run only on electricity. To alleviate range anxiety during trips, consumers need adequate charging infrastructure; this applies to both intra-city (short distance) and inter-city (long distance) travels. The intra-city travel problem has been well studied. Examples of effective solutions include establishing home and workplace charging systems (Huang and Zhou, 2015), and supporting intra-city public charging networks (NREL, 2017) that include level-1 (L1, 1.4 kW) chargers, level-2 (L2, 6.2 kW) chargers, and direct current fast chargers (DCFC, > 50 kW).